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R  ENGLISH  BOOK 

FRED:m;fflTCH 


GIFT  OF 


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JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 


BOOKS  BY 

ALFRED  M.  HITCHCOCK 

of  the  Hartford  (Conn.)  Public  High 
School 

PRACTICE    BOOK   IN  ENGLISH 
COMPOSITION.     226  pp.     12ino. 

NEW   PRACTICE    BOOK   IN 
ENGLISH      COMPOSITION. 

447  pp.     12mo. 

ENLARGED     PRACTICE    BOOK 
IN    ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 

381  pp.     12mo. 

WORDS,    SENTENCES    AND 
PARAGRAPHS.      239  pp.      12mo. 

RHETORIC    AND    THE    STUDY 
OF    LITERATURE.         410    pp. 

12mo. 

HENRY     HOLT     AND      COMPANY 
PUBLISHERS  NEW  YORK 


JUNIOR 
ENGLISH    BOOK 


BY 


ALFRED  M.  HITCHCOCK 

HARTFORD  PUBLIC  HIGH   SCHOOL 


NEW  YORK 
HENRY  HOLT  AND  COMPANY 


V;-  i 


COPYRIGHT    1920,    BY 
HENRY    HOLT    AND    COMPANY 


PREFACE 

The  Junior  English  Book,  designed  for  use  in  the  critical 
but  somewhat  neglected  eighth  and  ninth  years,  advances 
no  new  theory  of  instruction.  The  purpose  of  such  a  man- 
ual, it  is  assumed,  must  be  to  aid  the  teacher  in  his  efforts 
to  encourage  the  formation  of  habits  of  correct,  clear,  truth- 
ful expression.  It  is  also  assumed  that  training  of  two 
kinds  is  necessary:  (1)  practice  in  simple  composition, 
oral  and  written;   (2)  word  and  sentence  drill. 

Part  I  presents  ten  separate  Courses,  each  containing  a 
group  of  related  tasks  in  composition,  graded  as  to  diffi- 
culty, followed  by  smaller  groups  of  drill  exercises  in  which 
attention  is  paid  to  such  matters  as  pronunciation,  spelling, 
punctuation,  and  sentence  revision.  Part  II  presents  a 
simple  treatment  of  grammar,  with  more  than  haK  of  the 
exercises  aimed  directly  at  common  errors. 

The  tasks  in  composition  number  about  150,  more  than 
can  be  used  in  two  years.  In  selecting  material  for  these 
tasks  care  has  been  taken  to  provide  training  of  immediate 
value.  This  is  illustrated  in  the  Courses  entitled  Letters 
and  Business  English,  where  the  treatment,  though  prac- 
tical, is  designedly  elementary.  It  has  been  definitely 
recognized,  moreover,  that  the  young  do  best  when  they 
are  interested.  Not  only  are  the  subjects  for  compositions 
taken  from  the  world  as  it  is  known  to  boys  and  girls,  but 
ingenuity  has  been  taxed  in  presenting  matter  in  such  form 
as  may  appeal  to  the  spirit  of  youth  —  imaginative,  nature- 
loving,  fun-loving,  ambitious,  fond  of    measuring  strength 


462234 


vi  PREFACE 

in  competition,  quickly  responsive  to  praise,  sensitive  to 
rebuke,  keen  in  detecting  insincerity.  The  drill  exercises 
also  number  about  150.  They  correspond  in  some  measure 
to  the  grinding  but  necessary  drill  a  soldier  undergoes  in 
training-camp.  Yet  through  novelty  and  through  the  in- 
troduction when  possible  of  an  element  of  competition, 
the  tedium  is  somewhat  relieved.  No  exercise  has  been 
introduced  merely  to  provide  activity;  each  serves  a 
practical  purpose. 

The  value  of  any  manual  of  composition  depends  only  in 
part  on  the  measure  of  success  with  which  the  capacity, 
needs,  and  interests  of  the  pupils  have  been  gauged.  The 
manual  fails  if  it  throws  upon  the  teacher  too  heavy  a 
burden.  It  fails,  also,  if  instead  of  aiding  the  teacher  it 
curbs  him,  forcing  him  to  follow  a  hard  and  fast  sequence. 
Attention  is  therefore  directed  to  the  following  character- 
istics of  the  Junior  English  Booh. 

1.  The  burden  of  reading  and  correcting,  necessarily 
heavy  under  any  effective  plan,  has  been  reduced  to  a  mini- 
mum and  carefully  distributed.  Three-fourths  of  the  work 
is  oral,  or  of  such  a  character  that  correcting  may  be  done 
quickly  and  with  little  effort.  The  drill  exercises  in  Part  I 
are  designed  not  to  be  taken  consecutively  but  to  be  sand- 
wiched between  the  exercises  in  composition.  By  alternat- 
ing the  grammar  sections  in  Part  II  with  the  Courses  in 
Part  I,  still  further  relief  may  be  gained. 

2.  Every  effort  has  been  made  to  lighten  the  burden  of 
correction  through  anticipating  errors  that  are  likely  to 
occur.  The  tasks  in  composition  are  very  definitely  stated, 
^uch  cautions  and  hints  as  are  legitimate  are  given  in 
abundance.  Models,  chiefly  school  compositions  by  children 
who  have  performed  similar  tasks,  are  used  freely.  More- 
over, the  drill  exercises  in  both  Part  I  and  Part  II  call 
attention  to  common  errors  and  tend  to  establish  habits 
of  correct  expression. 


PREFACE  vii 

3.  Although  the  sequence  of  work  has  been  determined 
by  what  has  been  found  best  in  classroom  experience,  and 
may  therefore  be  safely  followed,  it  permits  of  rearrange- 
ment, for  there  is  little  of  interlocking.  The  drill  exercises 
in  Part  I  —  in  spelling,  punctuation,  etc.  —  follow,  as  they 
should,  a  progressive  sequence;  but  the  related  gi-oups  of 
composition  tasks  are  independent  units.  They  may  be 
shifted.  For  example,  there  is  no  reason  why,  if  it  is  de- 
sired, Business  English  should  not  be  taken  immediately 
after  Letters.  Moreover,  within  each  group,  since  the  tasks 
are  arranged  in  the  order  of  their  diflSculty,  there  is  oppor- 
tfunity  for  the  teacher  to  adapt  the  work  to  the  maturity 
of  his  pupils  by  omitting  what  seems  too  simple  or  too 
diflScult. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  manual  I  have  been  ably 
assisted  by  Miss  Elizabeth  P.  Peck  of  Hartford  Public 
High  School.  Miss  Peck  has  not  only  shared  the  burden 
of  reading  proof-sheets,  but  has  made  many  suggestions 
growing  out  of  her  experience  as  a  successful  teacher. 
I  am  deeply  grateful  to  her. 

A.  M.  H. 


CONTENTS 

PART  ONE 

PRELIMINARY  TESTS 

PRACTICE  IN  COMPOSITION— WORD  AND  SENTENCE  DRILL 

PAGE 

Preliminary  Tests 3 

COURSE  I 

Composition 

Old  Stones  To  Tell 17 

Drill  Exercises 

The  Dictionary:    Dictionary  uses;    the  making  of  lists;    alpha- 
betical arrangement 35 

Punctuation:   The  period;   the  comma  between  terms  of  a  series      384 

COURSE  II 

Composition 

True  Narratives 47 

Drill  Exercises 

Word  Games 62 

Spelling:   Words  often  confused 62 

Punctuation:  Quotation  marks 65  -^ 

COURSE  III 
Composition 

Letters 71 

Drill  Exercises 

Word  Derivation 97 

Pronunciation:    Final  g  and  other  slighted   consonants;    ath  el 

etics  and  similar  mispronunciations 100 

ix 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Spelling;   Words  containing  ei  or  ie;  silent  e  before  a  suffix 102 

Punctuation:  Commas  used  to  set  off  parenthetical  elements; 
comma  used  to  set  off  a  dependent  element  at  the  beginning 
of  a  sentence 106 


COURSE  IV 
Composition 

Explaining 113 

Drill  Exercises 

Pronunciation:  Correct  sound  of  vowels 133 

^  Spelling:   Adding  suffixes  to  words  ending  in  a  consonant 134 

Punctuation:  The  colon;  ways  of  punctuating  enumerations; 
the  interrogation  point;  the  exclamation  point;  the 
apostrophe 137 


COURSE  V 
Composition 

Picturing 145 

Drill  Exercises 

Pronunciation:    Words  containing  th  or  ptk;    correct  sound  of 

vowels 171 

Spelling:  Homonyms;  words  often  confused 172 

Punctuation:    Commas   used    to   set   off   a    non-restrictive   ele- 
■*■  ment;  the  comma  used  before  a  connective 173 


COURSE  VI 

Composition 

Business  English 181 

Drill  Exercises 

Pronunciation:    Common  words  often  mispronounced;    correct 

placing  of  accent;  common  French  words 208 

Spelling:  Business  terms;  words  used  in  correspondence 209 

Punctuation:  The  semicolon 212 


CONTENTS  xi 

COURSE  VII 

Composition  page 

Making  Up  One's  Mind 219 

Drill  Exercises 

Pronunciation:    Final  tests 235 

Spelling:    Words  often  confused 236 

Punctuation:    The  parenthesis;    the  dash;    review  exercises  .  .  238 


COURSE  vni 

Composition 

Convincing  Others    247 

Drill  Exercises 

Spelhng:   Difficult  words 259  ■ 

Sentence  Revision:  Substitution  of  elements  nearly  equivalent; 
avoiding  unpleasant  repetition;  removing  unnecessary 
words;   changing  from  compound  to  simple  or  complex ....      263 


COURSE  IX 

Composition 

Traijiing  The  Imagination 271 

Drill  Exercises 

Spelling:   Latin  prefixes 286  - 

Sentence  Revision :   Avoiding  and;  practice  in  substitution 292  • 

Choice  of  Words:   Words  that  picture 296 


COURSE  X 
Composition 

The  Paragraph 305 

Drill  Exercises 

Spelling:   Difficult  yet  common  words 319 " 

Sentence  Revision:    Making  participial  reference  unmistakable; 
bringing  about  uniformity   in  person,  number,  tense,  etc.; 

unifying  terms  in  parallel  construction 320 

Choice  of  Words:  Synonyms 322' 


xii  CONTENTS 

PART  TWO 

GRAMMAR 

WITH  ATTENTION  DIRECTED  TO  COMMON  ERRORS 

PAGE 

I.  The  Eight  Parts  of  Speech 327 

II.  The  Sentence 334 

III.  Nouns 341 

IV.  Pronouns 353 

V.  Adjectives 366 

VI.  Adverbs 371 

VII.  Verbs 376 

VIII.  Prepositions  and  Conjunctions 406 

IX.  Sentence  Analysis 420 

Sequence  Guide  to  Drill  Exercises 437 

Index 441 


PART  ONE 

PRELIMINARY  TESTS 
EXERCISES  IN  COMPOSITION 
WORD  AND  SENTENCE  DRILL 


PRELIMINARY  TESTS 

The  gymnasium  instructor  begins  the  year's  work  with 
a  series  of  tests.  He  weighs  each  boy,  measures  his  height, 
gauges  his  lungs,  and  hstens  to  the  beating  of  his  heart  to 
see  if  the  action  is  strong  and  regular.  Perhaps  he  asks  the 
boy  to  show  how  many  times  he  can  "chin"  himself,  and 
gives  him  a  little  contrivance  to  squeeze  as  tightly  as  pos- 
sible in  his  hand,  by  way  of  measuring  his  "grip."  This, 
and  perhaps  much  more,  he  does  by  way  of  getting  ac- 
quainted. He  wants  to  know  how  much  of  a  boy  —  how 
many  pounds,  how  many  inches,  how  much  breathing 
power,  how  strong  a  heart,  etc.  —  he  has  entrusted  to  him. 
He  wants  the  boy  to  become  acquainted  with  himself,  know 
wherein  he  is  strong,  perhaps  above  the  average,  and  wherein 
he  is  weak  and  in  need  of  building  up  through  health-giving 
exercises.  The  record  card  that  he  hands  the  boy  at  the 
close  of  the  examination  is  for  him  to  keep,  that  he  may 
watch  himself  grow. 

We  will  follow  the  good  example  set  by  the  gymnasium 
instructor.  Here  are  a  number  of  tests.  They  have  little 
to  do  with  muscles,  yet  they  try  out  your  eyes,  your  ears, 
your  memory.  They  test  you  in  many  ways,  revealing  to 
you  and  to  your  instructor  whether  you  are  likely  to  become 
in  time  a  master  workman,  capable  of  accomplishing  great 
things.     Make  as  good  a  record  as  you  can. 

TEST  1 

Have  you  good  eyes?  When  you  tell  them  to  look  at 
something  and  report  what  is  there,  can  you  depend  upon 
them?     Are  they  reliable  servants? 

3 


4  :    .    •••.     JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

Copy  one  of  the  following  ^paragraphs,  in  good  penmanship. 
Copy  it  accurately.  Punctuation  counts ,  everything  counts , 
except  keeping  a  perfect  margin  at  the  right  of  (he  page.  A 
single  error  means  failure;  there  must  he  no  flaws  whatever. 
Can  you  do  it? 


"Among  my  earliest  recollections,"  said  Lincoln,  "I  remem- 
ber how,  when  a  mere  child,  I  used  to  get  irritated  when  any- 
body talked  to  me  in  a  way  that  I  could  not  understand.  I 
do  not  think  I  ever  got  angry  at  anything  else  in  my  life;  but 
that  always  disturbed  my  temper,  and  has  ever  since.  I 
can  remember  going  to  my  little  bedroom,  after  hearing  the 
neighbors  talk  of  an  evening  with  my  father,  and  spending  no 
small  part  of  the  night  walking  up  and  down  and  trying  to 
make  out  what  was  the  exact  meaning  of  some  of  their,  to 
me,  dark  sayings.  I  could  not  sleep,  although  I  tried  to, 
when  I  got  on  such  a  hunt  for  an  idea,  until  I  had  caught  it; 
and  when  I  thought  I  had  got  it,  I  was  not  satisfied  imtil  I 
had  repeated  it  over  and  over;  until  I  had  put  it  in  language 
plain  enough,  as  I  thought,  for  any  boy  to  comprehend." 


2 

A  volcano  is  a  vent  in  the  earth's  crust  out  of  which  hot  rock 
comes.  The  hot  rock  may  flow  out  in  liquid  form  (called  lava), 
or  it  may  be  thrown  out  in  solid  pieces.  It  is  generally  built 
up  into  a  cone,  which  may  become  a  mound,  a  high  hill,  or  even 
a  high  mountain.  Quantities  of  gases  and  vapors  are  dis- 
charged along  with  the  hot  rock.  There  is  a  hollow,  called  the 
crater,  in  the  top  of  most  volcanic  cones.  Craters  vary  greatly 
in  size,  some  of  the  larger  ones  being  two  or  three  miles  across. 
While  the  volcano  is  active,  an  opening  leads  down  from  the 
crater  to  the  source  of  the  lava,  at  an  unknown  depth. 

From  Modern  Geography  for  High  SchooLt, 

by  Salisbury,  Barrows,  and  Tower 


PRELIMINARY  TESTS 


Down  in  the  sea,  very  far  down,  under  five  miles  of  water, 
somewhere  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  there  is  a  sea  cave,  all  roofed 
with  coral.  There  is  a  brightness  in  the  cave,  although  it  is 
so  far  below  the  sea.  And  in  the  light  there  the  great  sea- 
snake  is  coiled  in  immense  blue  coils,  with  a  crown  of  gold  upon 
his  horned  head.  He  sits  there  very  patiently  from  year  to 
year,  making  the  water  tremulous  with  the  threshing  of  his 
gills.  And  about  him  at  all  times  swim  the  goggle-eyed  dumb 
creatures  of  the  sea.  He  is  the  king  of  all  the  fishes,  and  he 
waits  there  until  the  judgment  day,  when  the  waters  shall  pass 
away  for  ever  and  the  dim  kingdom  disappear.  At  times  the 
coils  of  his  body  wreathe  themselves,  and  then  the  waters 
above  him  rage.  One  folding  of  his  coil  will  cover  a  sea  with 
shipwreck;  and  so  it  must  be  until  the  sea  and  the  ships  come 
to  an  end  together  in  that  serpent's  death-throe. 

From  Port  of  Many  Ships,  by  John  Masefield 
By  permission  of  the  publishers,  The  Macmillan  Company 


TEST  2 

Have  you  good  ears?  Are  they  dependable  servants, 
trained  to  report  messages  accurately?  Here  is  a  simple 
test. 

While  the  teacher  reads  one  of  the  jollowing  .selections  — 
reads  it  slowly ,  distinctly ,  'punctuation  and  all,  write  it  down 
neatly  word  for  word,  punctuation  mark  for  punctuation  mark. 
Remember  that  getting  the  message  nearly  correct  will  not  do; 
a  single  slip  means  failure. 

Like  the  first,  this  second  task  is  a  practical  one.  In 
every  business  office  a  considerable  part  of  the  work  consists 
in  merely  reproducing  things  accurately,  an  eyeful  or  an 
earful  at  a  time.  "Accuracy  first"  is  the  motto  of  a  good 
clerk. 


JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 


The  New  London  Day  tells  of  a  boy  who  was  riding  his  bicycle 
on  the  wharf  at  the  foot  of  State  street  when  he  went  over- 
board, bicycle  and  all.  People  in  a  rowboat  rushed  to  his 
rescue;  but  the  little  fellow,  ten  years  old,  called  out,  "Never 
mind  me;  I  can  swim.  Get  my  wheel."  That  boy's  education 
has  not  been  wasted.  Somewhere  he  has  learned  the  simple 
art  of  swimming.  If  he  had  not  learned  it,  what  a  different 
picture  would  have  been  presented!  Boys  and  girls,  all  of 
them  compelled  by  law  to  go  to  school,  should  have  as  a 
part  of  their  course  instruction  in  swimming. 

2 

While  walking  through  the  school  grounds,  the  other  day,  I 
stopped  to  watch  a  game  of  ball  between  two  nines  made  up 
of  the  younger  boys,  and  incidentally  saw  a  technical  point 
settled  in  a  manner  that  ought  to  interest  the  sporting  editors. 
One  of  the  youngsters  batted  the  ball  so  that  it  landed  on  the 
fire  escape  on  the  second  floor  level.  The  batter  ran  for  dear 
life,  and  made  a  home  run  before  the  outfielder  scrambled  up 
the  fire  escape  and  grabbed  the  ball.  He  did  not  throw  it  to 
the  home  plate  to  head  off  the  runner;  he  simply  stood  there 
and  claimed  that  he  had  caught  it.  Of  course  there  was  an 
argument  in  which  the  fine  points  of  the  game  were  debated 
with  some  warmth;  but  the  umpire  finally  ruled  that  the 
outfielder  had  caught  the  ball  before  it  had  touched  the  ground, 
and  therefore  the  batter  was  out.  What  do  you  think  of  his 
decision? 


Tulips  are  noted  for  their  ability  to  walk.  If  planted  in 
dark,  shady  places,  where  it  is  cold  and  damp,  they  will  de- 
liberately walk  away  from  the  dark  place  to  a  more  desirable 
part  of  the  garden.  They  usually  move  into  the  sun.  The 
bulb  that  was  planted  does  not  itself  actually  move,  but  its 
substance  is  transferred  little  by  little,  and  only  the  outer 
wrapping  of  brown  tissue  is  left.     The  bulb  sends  out  a  delicate 


PRELIMINARY  TESTS  7 

shoot  that  runs  horizontally  below  the  ground  till  it  has  reached 
a  distance  of  several  inches.  Then,  near  its  point,  a  swelling 
begins  to  take  the  shape  of  a  tulip  bulb,  which  grows  larger 
and  larger  as  the  food-material  of  the  old  bulb  is  brought  into 
it.  This  is  done  by  the  little  shoot.  If  the  particular  sunny 
or  light  spot  toward  which  the  tulip  is  walking  should  un- 
expectedly be  shaded,  it  will  immediately  begin  to  move  in 
some  other  direction. 

From  The  Human  Side  of  Plants,  by  Royal  Dixon 


Benjamin  Franklin  tells  in  his  Autobiography  how,  when  he 
was  a  young  man,  he  trained  himself  to  write  through  studying 
the  work  of  a  master.  He  had  bought,  and  read  over  and 
over  with  great  pleasure,  a  volume  of  the  Spectator^  which  was 
very  popular  in  his  day.  The  Spectator  is  a  collection  of  es- 
says, each  two  or  three  pages  long,  many  of  them  somewhat 
like  the  editorials  one  finds  in  the  newspapers  of  our  time, 
though  some  are  simple  tales.  After  reading  one  of  these 
*' papers,"  as  they  are  called,  Franklin  would  jot  down  in 
regular  order  hints,  or  reminders,  in  regard  to  the  ideas  it 
contained.  These  he  would  put  aside  for  a  time,  then  try, 
with  their  aid,  to  reproduce  the  paper  in  his  own  words.  By 
comparing  what  he  had  written  with  the  original,  he  would 
discover  his  faults,  especially  in  the  choice  of  words  and  the 
arrangement  of  sentences.  Later  he  adopted  a  more  difficult 
plan.  Having  read  a  paper  and  made  his  notes,  he  jumbled 
the  notes  all  together  so  that  he  could  not  tell  which  came 
first.  A  few  weeks  later,  before  trying  to  reproduce  the  paper, 
he  would  try  to  rearrange  the  notes  in  the  best  order.  Some- 
times, though  not  often,  he  thought  that  he  hit  upon  a  better 
arrangement  than  that  employed  in  the  Spectator.  This  taught 
him  not  only  to  use  care  in  selecting  words  and  in  constructing 
sentences,  but  to  arrange  his  thoughts  in  proper  order  before 
trying  to  express  them. 


8  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

TEST  3 

We  employ  English  very  commonly  in  reporting  what  we 
have  witnessed.  Are  you  a  good  witness?  Are  your  senses 
alert?  Can  you  give,  in  clear  English,  an  accurate  account 
of  simple  happenings?     Here  is  a  practical  test. 

Watch  the  teacher  closely,  letting  nothing  escape  you^  while 
he  does  a  few  things.  For  example,  he  may  walk  down  a 
certain  aisle,  open  a  window,  speak  a  word  or  two  to  a  pupil, 
stoop  and  pick  up  a  scrap  of  paper,  then  return  to  his  desk. 
Write  a  brief  account  of  his  actions,  employing  the  same  care 
you  would  use  if  you  were  testifying  in  court. 

TEST  4 

Have  you  a  good  memory?  Can  you  read  a  page  or  two 
of  simple  prose,  keep  it  in  mind  for  a  day,  then  reproduce  it, 
not  word  for  word,  but  in  your  own  language? 

Read,  tonight,  the  following  selections,  going  over  them  a 
number  of  times.  Come  to  class  tomorrow  prepared  to  re- 
produce orally  whichever  one  the  instructor  may  call  for. 

1.  Belling  the  Cat 

A  certain  cat  that  lived  in  a  large  country-house  was  so 
watchful  and  active  that  the  mice,  finding  their  numbers  sadly 
thinned,  held  a  council,  behind  closed  doors,  to  consider  what 
they  could  do  about  it.  Many  plans  had  been  talked  over  and 
given  up  when  a  young  mouse,  rising  and  catching  the  eye  of 
the  president,  said  that  he  had  a  proposal  to  make  which  he 
was  sure  would  meet  with  the  approval  of  all.  *'If,'*  he  said, 
**the  cat  wore  round  her  neck  a  little  bell,  every  step  she  took 
would  make  it  tinkle;  and  so,  being  thus  warned  of  her  ap- 
proach, we  should  have  time  to  reach  our  holes  before  she 
could  catch  us.  By  this  simple  means  we  should  live  in  safety 
and  defy  her  powers.*'  The  speaker  resumed  his  seat  with  an 
air  of  self-satisfaction,  and  a  murmur  of  applause  arose  from 
the  audience.     But  an  old  gray  mouse,  with  a  merry  twinkle 


PRELIMINARY  TESTS  9 

in  his  eye,  soon  got  up  and  said,  **The  plan  proposed  by  the 
last  speaker  is  an  admirable  one,  but  I  fear  it  has  one  draw- 
back. He  has  not  told  us  who  should  put  the  bell  round  the 
cat*s  neck." 

From  Aesop's  Fables 

2.  The  Two  Bootblacks 

Mr.  Lorin  Deland  tells  of  watching  two  bootblacks,  one 
Saturday  afternoon.  They  were  stationed  on  opposite  sides 
of  a  busy  street,  one  stand  being  as  favorable  for  business 
as  the  other.  They  had  the  same  tools,  and  apparently  each 
was  a  good  workman;  yet  one  boy  was  getting  twice  as  much 
trade  as  his  competitor.  What  was  the  explanation.^  Mr. 
Deland  gives  it  somewhat  as  follows:  The  cry  of  the  unsuccess- 
ful bootblack  was  simply  "Shine  your  boots  here!"  The  other 
boy  was  calling  out,  "Get  your  Sunday  shine!"  The  first 
cry  merely  announced  that  here  was  an  opportunity  to  get  one's 
boots  blacked.  The  second  cry  did  far  more.  "Tomorrow 
is  Sunday,"  it  made  the  passer-by  think.  "On  Sunday,  of 
all  days,  I  must  look  neat.  What  would  my  wife  say  if  I 
were  to  start  for  church  wearing  muddy  shoes!  What  would 
the  neighbors  say.'^  Sure  enough,  it  is  Saturday  night;  this 
is  my  last  chance.  I  must  get  a  shine."  The  successful 
bootblack  used  imagination.  Mr.  Deland  is  so  sure  that 
success  in  business  is  dependent  largely  upon  imagination  that 
he  has  written  a  book  about  it. 

3.  Saved  by  a  Beetle 

A  vizier  who  had  displeased  the  Sultan  was  condemned  to  be 
imprisoned  for  life  in  a  high  tower  from  which  escape  seemed 
impossible.  One  night  his  wife  came  to  the  foot  of  the  tower, 
weeping  bitterly  for  her  husband.  W^hen  he  heard  her,  and 
knew  who  it  was,  he  called  out  softly  to  her,  "Do  not  weep, 
for  I  may  yet  be  saved,  if  you  will  do  as  I  bid  you.  jGo  home, 
and  bring  with  you  when  you  come  again  a  live  black  beetle 
and  a  little  butter.  Bring  also  a  ball  of  fine  silk,  a  ball  of  thread, 
a  ball  of  stout  twine,  and  a  coil  of  rope."  His  wife  went,  and 
quickly  returned  with  all  these  things. 


10  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

"Now  touch  the  beetle's  head  with  butter,"  said  the  vizier, 
**and  tie  one  end  of  the  silk  thread  round  his  body  and  place 
him  on  the  tower  directly  beneath  my  window." 

All  this  was  quickly  done.  The  beetle,  thinking  from  the 
smell  of  the  butter  that  there  must  be  a  store  of  it  above,  crawled 
straight  up  till  he  came  to  where  the  vizier  stood.  In  this 
way  the  prisoner  got  hold  of  one  end  of  the  silk.  But  this  had 
been  tied  to  the  thread,  and  the  thread  to  the  stout  twine,  and 
the  twine  to  the  rope.  When  the  vizier  had  pulled  up  the 
rope,  he  fastened  one  end  of  it  inside  of  the  tower,  then  slid 
down  to  the  ground,  and  under  the  -cover  of  darkness  fled. 

TEST  6 

Can  you  work  rapidly  and  yet  be  accurate,  or  do  you  be- 
come confused  when  asked  to  "speed  up".'^     Here  is  a  test. 

Arrange  the  following  names  quickly  in  alphabetical  order, 
in  each  case  letting  the  given  name  come  last.  That  is,  William 
Shakespeare  shmdd  be  written  Shakespeare,  William.  There 
must  be  no  mistakes  in  spelling.  The  penmanship  must  be 
plain,  the  margins  carefully  preserved. 

Alfred  Tennyson  John  Keats 

Charles  Kingsley  Edmund  Burke 

Robert  Browning  John  Milton 

John  Henry  Newman  William  Shakespeare 

William  Wordsworth  Thomas  Babington  Macaulay 


TEST  6 

Have  you  an  active  imagination?  Can  you  see  things 
with  your  eyes  closed?  Can  you  invent  a  story  to  go  with 
a  strange  face,  or  with  a  deserted  house,  or  with  a  bit  of 
wreckage  cast  up  by  the  tide? 

Study  the  illustration  entitled  Fisherman* s  Luck.  Who  are 
these  four  boys?  Do  they  all  belong  to  the  same  company? 
Can  you  not  invent  a  story  to  go  vnth  the  picture?     Try  it. 


PRELIMINARY  TESTS 


il 


Fisherman's  Luck 


12  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 


TEST  7 


Do  you  speak  English?     Are  you  sure?     Prove  it. 

Read  aloud  the  following  nonsensical  paragraphy  while  your 
classmates  listen  for  errors.  Be  very  careful,  for  the  paragraph 
contains  about  fifty  words  that  are  commonly  mispronounced. 

A  deaf  Italian  architect  and  his  partner,  an  athletic  gentle- 
man with  a  high  forehead  and  a  black  mustache,  spent  a  Tues- 
day evening,  last  February,  in  going  over  columns  of  figures, 
some  of  which  had  to  do  with  an  aeroplane  designed  for  ex- 
ploration among  the  Arctic  mountains,  and  some  with  finance. 
The  Italian  was  as  solemn  as  if  he  were  coming  down  with 
diphtheria,  but  the  athlete  kept  laughing.  Perhaps  the 
coffee  he  was  sipping  mischievously  influenced  his  judgment. 
Apparently  he  took  genuine  delight  in  everything.  Acciden- 
tally, however,  he  upset  his  coffee.  Then  an  evil  mood  seized 
him,  and  perhaps  he  might  have  quarreled  vehemently  with 
his  ally.  But  at  that  moment  they  saw  their  hostess  approach- 
ing bringing  hot  potatoes  and  a  plate  of  steaming  chestnuts. 
The  details  of  what  followed  were  given  in  the  morning  news- 
paper. This  incident  undoubtedly  illustrates  the  soothing 
influence  of  hospitable  victuals  upon  combatants;  at  any  rate, 
it  shows  that  correct  pronunciation  may  not  be  as  common 
as  is  supposed. 

TEST  8 

Here  are  fifty  common  words.  A  boy  of  twelve  should 
be  able  to  spell  them  correctly  without  hesitation.  Can 
you?  Following  the  list  is  a  word  mixture  made  from  it. 
There  is  little  sense  to  it,  but  never  mind.  Can  you  write  it 
from  dictation?  Remember  that  though  in  school  you  may 
be  promoted  from  grade  to  grade  if  your  work  is,  let  us  say, 
seventy  percent  perfect,  in  the  business  world  one  hundred 
percent  is  expected  of  you,  and  a  single  misspelled  word  is  a 
serious  blemish  in  a  social  letter. 


PRELIMINARY  TESTS 


13 


Spell  the  following  words, 
'paragraph. 


Write  from  dictation  the  nonsense 


chief 

writer 

studied 

lose 

those 

among 

forty 

sure 

meant 

together 

commence 

until 

copy 

busy 

led 

scheme 

whether 

almost 

neither 

balance 

different 

clothes 

whose 

which 

does 

speech 

queer 

huge 

breathe 

across 

safety 

careful 

usually 

already 

around 

always 

bigger 

village 

imitate 

visitor 

truly 

also 

woman 

partner 

surprise 

their 
image 

enemy 
career 

awful 

Almost  forty  of  the  chief  writers  studied  together.  Usually 
those  whose  clothes  were  different  looked  queer.  Among  the 
visitors  was  a  busy  woman  of  careful  speech.  Her  partner 
meant  to  copy  it,  but  was  led  to  give  up  the  scheme  in  the 
midst  of  his  career.  Do  not  commence  until  the  enemy  does. 
He  is  sure  to  lose  his  balance  as  soon  as  he  begins  to  breathe. 
Around  the  village  and  also  across  the  stream  they  had  already 
gone  in  safety.  Much  to  their  surprise,  the  awful  image  was 
always  hard  to  imitate.  Whether  neither  was  bigger  than 
the  huge  one  which  we  saw  was  always  truly  doubtful. 


TEST  9 

Here  is  a  final  test.  The  paragraph  below  contains  about 
twenty  errors.  They  are  errors  that  few  editors  would  care 
to  have  appear  in  their  newspapers.  No  careful  business 
man  would  think  that  he  could  afford  to  have  any  of  them 
appear  in  a  sales  letter.  And  yet  the  sentences  are  such  as 
one  hears  all  too  commonly.  Possibly  they  are  the  kind 
you  employ.  No,  we  will  not  say  that;  yet  among  the 
errors  are  perhaps  a  few  which  you  make  occasionally. 

Copy  the  following  paragraph,  correcting  all  the  mistakes. 


14  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

It  must  have  been  him;  at  any  rate,  I  know  that  he  with  his 
two  brothers  were  going  to  be  there,  and  them  Jones  boys  said 
that  they  seen  him  too.  I  wouldn't  be  surprised  to  learn  that 
he  was  trying  to  avoid  us.  He  don't  seem  to  care  for  our  com- 
pany. If  I  was  you,  I  would  lay  down  and  rest  for  a  while. 
Fred  says  you  can  take  his  blanket.  Was  you  frightened 
when  it  begun  to  thunder.^  I  wasn't;  but  I  felt  different  than 
what  I  do  when  it  is  pleasant.  It  must  of  rained  awful  in  Ludlow. 
John  says  to  me,  "Be  you  getting  wet,  Bill.?"  "Sure,"  says  I; 
**  ain't  it  raining.'^  "  He  looked  like  a  drownded  rat.  Did  you 
dry  your  clothes  yet,  or  are  you  going  to  wait  till  you  get  home? 

And  now,  with  preliminary  tests  out  of  the  way,  we  are 
ready  to  go  into  training.  Plunge  in  with  a  determination 
to  do  your  best !  Never  mind  if  some  of  the  tasks  prove  dif- 
ficult  and  uninteresting;  no  great  thing  is  easily  gained.  Do 
your  part  so  well  that  the  completion  of  each  Course  will 
find  you  a  little  nearer  the  goal  toward  which  you  are  striv- 
ing: ability  to  express  yourself  truthfully  in  correct,  clear 
English. 


COURSE  I 

COMPOSITION 
Old  Stories  to  Tell 
DRILL 

The  Dictionary 
Dictionary  uses 
The  making  of  word  lists 
Alphabetical  arrangement 

Punctuation 
The  period 
The  comma  between  terms  of  a  series 


OLD  STORIES  TO  TELL 

Everybody  enjoys  a  good  story.  Nearly  everybody 
likes  to  tell  a  good  story;  yet  few  do  it  well,  for  it  is  an  art. 
What  is  the  secret  of  this  art?  Much  of  it  lies  hidden  in 
the  word  imagination.  The  skilled  story  teller  pictures 
everything  clearly  in  his  mind.  He  imagines  how  the 
characters  look  and  how  they  "feel"  as  they  do  this  and 
that,  and  how  he  would  feel  under  similar  circumstances. 
Like  the  actor  in  a  play,  he  puts  himself  in  the  place  of  others. 
Keep  this  in  mind  when  preparing  the  following  exercise. 
Memorizing  word  for  word  will  not  do  at  all;  use  your 
imagination. 

EXERCISE  1 

Read  the  following  stories.  Select  two  that  you  like  and 
make  yourself  so  familiar  with  them  that  you  can  tell  them 
smoothly.  If  you  wish,  you  may  bring  to  class  a  slip  of  paper 
on  which  are  jotted  down  a  few  notes  to  help  your  memory. 

1.  A  Munchausen  Adventure 

While  traveling  on  horseback  through  Russia,  one  winter, 
the  Baron  encountered  a  great  deal  of  severe  weather.  The 
cold  was  extreme  and  the  snowstorms  were  frequent  and  heavy. 
On  one  occasion  he  lost  his  way.  No  village  was  to  be  seen, 
not  even  a  peasant's  home.  To  make  matters  worse,  night 
and  darkness  overtook  him.  At  length,  being  very  tired,  he 
alighted,  tied  his  horse  by  the  bridle  rein  to  what  appeared  to 
be  the  stump  of  a  small  tree,  and  lay  down  in  the  snow,  where 
he  soon  fell  into  a  sound  sleep. 

17 


18  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

When  he  awoke  in  the  morning,  he  was  surprised  to  find 
himself  lying  in  a  village  churchyard.  His  horse  had  dis- 
appeared; but  hearing  a  neigh,  the  Baron  looked  up  and  there 
was  his  horse  hanging  by  the  bridle  rein  from  the  tip  of  the 
church  steeple.  He  at  once  guessed  what  had  happened. 
The  village  had  been  covered  by  a  deep  snow.  What  in  the 
growing  darkness  he  had  taken  for  the  stump  of  a  tree  was 
really  the  tip  of  the  church  spire.  During  the  night  there  had 
come  a  thaw.  The  snow  had  melted  rapidly,  and  the  Baron, 
still  sleeping  soundly,  had  sunk  gently  by  degrees  to  the  ground. 
Immediately  drawing  his  pistol,  he  shot  the  bridle  rein  in  two. 
Down  dropped  the  horse.  The  Baron  mounted  the  saddle 
and  proceeded  on  his  journey. 

Adapted  from  The  Adventures  of  Baron  Munchausen 


2.  A  Japanese  Legend 

Once  upon  a  time,  long  ago,  a  poor  old  peasant  was  cutting 
wood  far  up  on  a  mountainside  when  he  found  a  spring  of  pure 
cool  water.  He  knelt  down  and  drank,  for  it  was  a  warm  day 
and  he  was  very  thirsty.  The  water  was  wonderfully  refresh- 
ing; but  more  wonderful  still,  as  he  caught  sight  of  his  re- 
flection in  the  pool  he  was  amazed  to  find  that  he  had  suddenly 
grown  young.  The  wrinkles  were  all  gone  from  his  face,  his 
eyes  were  clear,  and  his  head,  which  a  moment  before  had  been 
bald,  was  covered  with  thick  black  hair.  As  he  arose  to  his 
feet,  he  felt  the  vigor  of  young  manhood  pulsing  through  his 
body.     He  had  drunk  at  the  fountain  of  jouth! 

In  great  joy  he  ran  down  the  mountainside,  to  tell  the  glad 
news  to  his  wife.  As  he  rushed  into  the  little  thatched  cottage, 
he  gave  the  poor  woman  a  terrible  fright,  for  she  could  not 
imagine  who  this  strange  young  man  could  be,  so  changed 
was  he  from  the  old  man  of  the  morning.  It  was  with  difficulty 
that  he  calmed  her  and  convinced  her  that  he  was  really  her 
husband.  And  then  she  fell  to  weeping,  for  she  feared  that  so 
handsome  a  young  man  would  not  oare  for  a  feeble  old  woman. 
"But  you  too  shall  drink,"  he  cried;  "we  shall  both  be  young. 


OLD  STORIES  TO  TELL  19 

I  can  easily  direct  you  to  the  spring.     Go,  while  I  remain  to 
guard  the  cottage." 

An  hour  passed,  two  hours,  a  long  time,  yet  she  did  not 
return.  What  could  have  happened.?  Had  she  lost  her  way.? 
At  last,  thoroughly  alarmed,  he  set  out  in  search  of  her.  With- 
out difficulty  he  found  the  spring,  but  not  his  wife.  She  was 
nowhere  to  be  seen,  nor  did  she  answer  when  he  called.  In 
despair  he  was  about  to  give  up  the  search  when  he  heard, 
coming  from  a  neighboring  thicket,  a  plaintive  little  wail; 
and  pushing  aside  the  branches,  he  found  a  little  baby  girl. 
The  poor  woman  in  her  eagerness  had  drunk  too  deeply. 

3.  The  Giant  and  the  Dwarf 

Once  upon  a  time  a  Giant  and  a  Dwarf  were  friends  and 
kept  together.  They  made  a  bargain  that  they  would  never 
forsake  each  other,  but  go  seek  adventures. 

The  first  battle  they  fought  was  with  two  Saracens;  and  the 
Dwarf,  who  was  very  courageous,  dealt  one  of  the  champions 
a  most  angry  blow.  It  did  the  Saracen  very  little  injury, 
who,  lifting  up  his  sword,  fairly  struck  off  the  poor  Dwarf's 
arm.  He  was  now  in  a  woeful  plight;  but  the  Giant,  coming 
to  his  assistance,  in  a  short  time  left  the  two  Saracens  dead  upon 
the  plain,  and  the  Dwarf  cut  off  the  dead  man's  head  in  spite. 

They  then  traveled  on  to  another  adventure.  This  was 
against  three  bloody-minded  Satyrs,  who  were  carrying  away 
a  damsel  in  distress.  The  Dwarf  was  not  quite  so  fierce  as 
before,  but  for  all  that,  struck  the  first  blow,  which  was  re- 
turned by  another  that  knocked  out  his  eye.  But  the  Giant 
was  soon  up  with  them,  and,  had  they  not  fled,  would  certainly 
have  killed  them  every  one.  They  were  all  very  joyful  for 
this  victory,  and  the  damsel  who  was  relieved  fell  in  love  with 
the  Giant  and  married  him. 

They  now  traveled,  and  farther  than  I  can  tell,  till  they  met 
with  a  company  of  robbers.  The  Giant,  for  the  first  time, 
was  foremost  now;  but  the  Dwarf  was  not  far  behind.  The 
battle  was  stout  and  long.  Wherever  the  Giant  came,  all 
fell  before  him;    but  the  Dwarf  had  like  to  have  been  killed 


20 


JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 


-  'L^'*'--? 


J  Ormtirr-  V» 


The  Fight  with   the  Saracens 


OLD  STORIES  TO  TELL  21 

more  than  once.     At  last  the  victory  was  declared  for  the  two 
adventurers;   but  the  Dwarf  had  lost  a  leg. 

The  Dwarf  had  now  lost  an  arm,  a  leg,  and  an  eye,  while  the 
Giant  was  without  a  single  wound;  upon  which  he  cried  out 
to  his  little  companion,  **My  little  hero,  this  is  glorious  sport! 
Let  us  get  one  victory  more,  and  then  we  shall  have  honor 
forever."  **No,"  cried  the  Dwarf,  who  by  this  time  was  grown 
wiser,  "No,  I  declare  off;  I'll  fight  no  more.  For  in  every 
battle  you  get  all  the  honors  and  rewards,  but  all  the  blows 
fall  upon  me.'*  Goldsmith 

4.  The  Wise  Dervish 

A  dervish  was  journeying  in  the  desert  when  two  merchants 
suddenly  met  him. 

"You  have  lost  a  camel,"  said  he  to  the  merchants. 

"Indeed  we  have,"  they  replied. 

"Was  he  not  blind  in  one  eye  and  lame  in  his  left  leg.'^" 

"He  was,''  replied  the  merchants. 

"Had  he  not  lost  a  front  tooth.'^" 

"He  had." 

"And  was  he  not  loaded  with  honey  on  the  one  side  and 
with  wheat  on  the  other  .f*" 

"Most  certainly  he  was,"  they  replied;  "and  since  you  have 
seen  him  so  lately  and  marked  him  so  particularly,  you  can, 
in  all  probability,  conduct  us  to  him." 

"My  friends,"  said  the  dervish,  "I  have  not  seen  your  camel, 
nor  ever  heard  of  him  but  from  you." 

"A  pretty  story,  truly,"  said  the  merchants;  "but  where 
are  the  jewels  which  formed  a  part  of  his  cargo?" 

"I  have  seen  neither  your  camel  nor  your  jewels,"  repeated 
the  dervish. 

On  this  they  seized  him  and  forthwith  hurried  him  before 
the  cadi,  where,  on  the  strictest  search,  nothing  could  be  found 
upon  him,  nor  could  any  evidence  whatever  be  adduced  to 
convict  him  either  of  falsehood  or  of  theft. 

They  were  about  to  proceed  against  him  as  a  sorcerer,  when 
the  dervish,   with  great  calmness,   thus  addressed   the  court: 


22  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

**I  have  been  much  amused  with  your  surprise,  and  own  that 
there  has  been  some  ground  for  your  suspicions.  I  have  lived 
long  alone;  I  can  find  ample  scope  for  observation  in  the  desert. 
I  knew  that  I  had  crossed  the  track  of  a  camel  that  had  strayed 
from  its  owner,  because  I  saw  no  mark  of  a  human  footprint 
on  the  same  route.  I  knew  that  the  animal  was  blind  in  one 
eye,  for  it  had  cropped  the  herbage  on  only  one  side  of  the 
path;  and  I  perceived  that  it  was  lame  in  one  leg  from  the 
faint  impression  that  particular  foot  produced  on  the  sand. 
I  concluded  that  the  animal  had  lost  a  tooth,  because  wher- 
ever it  had  grazed  a  small  tuft  of  the  herbage  was  left  unin- 
jured in  the  center  of  its  bite.  As  to  what  formed  the  burden 
of  the  beast,  the  busy  ants  informed  me  that  it  was  grain  on  the 
one  side,  and  the  clustering  flies  that  it  was  honey  on  the  other." 

From  The  National  Preceptor  (an  old  school  reader) 


EXERCISE  2 

Here  is  a  second  hint.  Like  the  first,  it  concerns  imagina- 
tion. The  skilled  story  teller  not  only  pictures  everything 
clearly  in  his  mind  and  tries  to  put  himself  in  the  place 
of  the  characters,  but  thinks  constantly  of  his  listeners. 
"Are  they  seeing  things  as  I  see  them.^'*  he  asks  himself. 
**Am  I  succeeding  in  making  them  share  the  emotions  of 
the  giant,  the  dwarf,  the  two  old  peasants,  the  dervish,  the 
angry  merchants?"  That  is  to  say,  he  loses  himself  in  the 
story,  lets  himself  be  carried  away  by  it;  yet  all  the  time  he 
is  calculating  how  he  can  make  his  listeners  lose  themselves, 
too,  swept  along  by  the  story,  all  else  forgotten,  even  the 
narrator.  That  is  difficult  indeed.  When  you  have  learned 
to  do  it,  you  are  a  master. 

Paying  attention  to  two  little  things  will  bring  you  several 
steps  nearer  this  desired  goal.  If  you  employ  words  that 
are  not  quite  familiar  —  dervish,  for  example,  or  cadi  —  what 
is  the  result?  Attention  is  weakened,  the  picture  blurred, 
while  the  listener  is  guessing  what  the  strange  terms  mean. 


OLD  STORIES  TO  TELL  23 

Use  simple  language,  then.  If  you  must  employ  a  strange 
word,  stop  and  explain  its  meaning.  Suppose,  too,  that 
you  have  the  unfortunate  habit  of  slipping  in  and,  or  and-a, 
between  sentences.  Do  you  like  to  hear  others  do  it.^^ 
Doesn't  it  irritate  you  a  little,  distract  your  attention.^ 
Then  guard  against  it.  Make  your  listeners  comfortable. 
Read  the  following  stories  Select  two  that  you  like  and 
make  yourself  so  familiar  with  them  that  you  can  retell  them 
smoothly.  Avoid  strange  words.  Guard  against  the  and-a 
habit. 

1.  Partners 

An  Italian  nobleman  was  going  to  be  married,  and  everybody 
at  his  castle  was  busy  helping  to  get  ready  the  marriage  feast. 
One  thing  was  causing  not  a  little  anxiety.  There  had  been 
such  dreadful  storms  at  sea  that  there  was  no  fish  to  be  had. 
On  the  very  morning  of  the  wedding  feast,  however,  a  poor 
fisherman  appeared  before  the  castle  gate  with  a  large  turbot 
on  his  back.  The  servants  were  so  delighted  that  they  took 
him  at  once  to  the  nobleman,  who,  in  the  presence  of  his  guests, 
bade  him  name  his  price  and  it  should  be  paid.  To  the  sur- 
prise of  all,  the  fisherman  said,  **My  price  is  one  hundred 
lashes  on  my  bare  back,  and  I  cannot  bate  a  single  stroke!" 

"Nonsense,"  said  the  nobleman,  *'you  are  joking.  Come, 
tell  us.     What  is  your  price.^*" 

The  fisherman  made  the  same  answer  as  before. 

**Well,"  said  the  nobleman,  "this  is  a  strange  jest;  but  we 
must  have  the  fish,  so  lay  the  lashes  on  lightly." 

After  fifty  strokes  had  been  given,  the  fisherman  cried, 
"Stop!  I  have  a  partner  in  this  business.  He  must  have  his 
share." 

"What!"  cried  the  nobleman,  "are  there  two  such  madmen 
in  the  world?  What  is  his  name?  We  will  send  for  him  at 
once." 

"You  have  not  far  to  go,"  answered  the  fisherman;  "he  is 
your  own  porter.  He  would  not  let  me  in  till  I  had  promised 
to  give  half  of  whatever  I  got  for  the  turbot.  I  want  to  keep 
my  promise." 


24  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

"Aha!"  said  the  nobleman,  "bring  him  here  at  once." 
The  porter  was  brought.  He  received  his  full  share  of  the 
lashes,  and  they  were  not  laid  on  lightly.  He  was  turned  away 
from  the  castle.  The  fisherman,  on  the  other  hand,  had  an 
excellent  dinner  set  before  him,  and  was  sent  away  with  a 
handsome  present. 


2.  The  Sword  of  Damocles 

Dionysius,  the  ruler  of  Sicily,  was  far  from  happy,  though 
he  possessed  great  riches  and  all  that  wealth  and  power  can 
procure.  Damocles,  one  of  his  flatterers,  deceived  by  this  false 
appearance  of  happiness,  took  occasion  to  compliment  him  on 
the  extent  of  his  power,  his  treasures,  his  royal  magnificence, 
and  declared  no  monarch  had  ever  been  greater  or  happier. 

"Should  you  like,"  said  the  king,  "to  taste  this  happiness 
and  know  by  experience  what  the  enjoyments  are  of  which  you 
hold  so  high  an  idea?" 

Damocles  with  joy  accepted  the  offer.  So  the  king  ordered 
a  royal  banquet  to  be  prepared,  and  a  gilded  sofa  to  be  placed 
for  his  favorite.  Sideboards  laden  with  gold  and  silver  dishes 
of  immense  value  were  arranged  in  the  apartment.  Pages  of 
extraordinary  beauty  were  ordered  to  attend  the  table,  and  to 
obey  his  commands  with  the  utmost  readiness  and  the  utmost 
submission.  Fragrant  ointments,  garlands  of  flowers,  and  rich 
perfumes  were  added  to  the  entertainment.  The  table  was 
loaded  with  the  most  exquisite  delicacies  of  every  kind. 

Intoxicated  with  pleasure,  Damocles  fancied  himself  amongst 
superior  beings.  But  in  the  midst  of  all  this  happiness,  as  he 
lay  indulging  himself  in  state,  he  saw  let  down  from  the  ceiling, 
exactly  over  his  head,  a  glittering  sword  hung  by  a  single  hair. 
This  put  a  speedy  end  to  his  joy  and  reveling.  The  pomp  of 
his  attendance,  the  glitter  of  the  carved  plate,  and  the  delicacy 
of  the  food  ceased  to  give  any  pleasure.  He  dreaded  to  stretch 
forth  his  hand  to  the  table.  He  threw  off  the  garland  of  roses. 
He  hastily  left  his  dangerous  situation,  and  earnestly  entreated 
the  king  to  restore  him  to  his  former  humble  condition,  for  he 
no  longer  desired  to  enjoy  a  happiness  so  terrible. 


OLD  STORIES  TO  TELL  25 

By  this  device  Dionysius  revealed  to  Damocles  how  miserable 
he  was  in  the  midst  of  all  his  treasures,  and  in  possession  of 
all  the  honors  and  enjoyments  that  royalty  could  bestow. 

Cicero 

3.  The  Stoiy  of  a  Wooden  Horse 

Among  the  best  of  old  Greek  stories  are  those  which  tell  of  the 
ten  years'  siege  of  Troy,  a  walled  city  in  Asia  Minor,  near  the 
coast.  Victory  finally  came  to  the  besieging  Greeks  through 
a  crafty  trick.  They  constructed  a  huge  wooden  horse  and 
in  it  concealed  a  number  of  their  bravest  warriors.  Then, 
pretending  that  they  were  discouraged  and  were  going  back 
home  to  Greece,  they  burned  their  camps  and  sailed  away  leaving 
the  horse  behind.  The  ships  did  not  go  far,  however,  but 
hid  behind  an  island  off  the  coast. 

Out  from  the  besieged  city  flocked  the  Trojans,  happy  in 
the  thought  that  the  enemy  had  departed.  The  huge  horse 
puzzled  them  greatly.  They  could  not  understand  it  at  all. 
**Let  us  destroy  it  at  once,"  some  said,  for  they  feared  treach- 
ery. One  Trojan,  a  priest,  seized  a  spear  and  thrust  it  through 
the  side  of  the  horse,  whereupon  the  arms  of  the  concealed 
warriors  were  heard  to  rattle.  It  was  a  trying  moment  for  the 
brave  Greeks.  We  wonder  that  the  Trojans  did  not  immedi- 
ately set  fire  to  the  horse  or  tear  it  to  pieces.  But  in  those 
days,  you  will  learn,  if  you  read  many  of  the  old  Greek  tales, 
things  were  determined  mainly  by  the  will  of  the  gods.  On 
this  occasion  a  goddess  who  favored  the  Greeks  sent  a  huge 
serpent  up  from  the  sea.  The  serpent  singled  out  the  priest 
and  killed  him  and  his  two  sons.  Then  it  seemed  probable 
that  the  horse  might  be  something  sacred,  and  that  the  spear- 
thrust  had  offended  the  gods.  Perhaps  it  would  be  better, 
some  thought,  to  drag  the  horse  into  the  city. 

While  they  were  still  hesitating,  there  suddenly  appeared 
a  man  whom  the  cunning  Greeks  had  left  behind,  a  man  with 
hands  bound,  apparently  in  great  distress,  who  told  the  aged 
king  of  the  Trojans  a  pitiful  tale.  He  had  managed  to  escape 
from  the  Greeks  just  as  they  were  about  to  sacrifice  him  to  the 
gods.     In  reply  to  their  questions  he  explained  that  the  horse 


26  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

was  indeed  sacred,  a  tribute  to  a  goddess  whom  the  Greeks 
had  offended,  purposely  built  huge  so  that  it  could  not  be 
taken  through  the  gate  into  the  city.  His  story  was  believed. 
The  Trojans  pulled  down  a  section  of  the  wall,  dragged  the 
horse  through  the  gap  into  the  very  heart  of  their  city,  and 
that  night  gave  themselves  up  to  riotous  banqueting. 

When  at  length  all  was  quiet,  the  crafty  man  who  had 
pretended  that  he  had  barely  escaped  being  sacrificed  released 
the  warriors  from  the  horse.  Under  cover  of  darkness  the 
gates  of  the  city  were  thrown  open.  At  a  given  signal  the  ships 
had  left  their  hiding  place  and  slipped  back  to  the  shore.  In 
through  the  gates  and  the  breach  in  the  wall  rushed  the  sol- 
diers. The  Trojans,  roused  from  heavy  sleep,  fought  valiantly 
but  in  vain.     The  city  was  soon  in  flames.     Thus  Troy  fell. 


4.  An  Eastern  Tale 

When  strangers,  passing  Hoseyn's  tent,  pitied  him  because 
he  was  poor,  friends  would  say,  "Your  pity  is  wasted.  What 
cares  Hoseyn  though  he  live  in  poverty!  Has  he  not  Muley- 
keh,  fleetest  of  mares,  never  beaten  in  the  race?  Dearer  to 
him  is  his  Pearl,  as  he  calls  her,  than  flocks  and  herds." 

Now  Duhl  came  riding  to  Hoseyn's  tent.  "You  are  poor," 
said  he.  "But  I  can  remedy  that.  'Tis  said  that  Muleykeh, 
your  Pearl,  is  worth  the  price  of  a  hundred  camels.  I  gener- 
ously offer  you  a  thousand.     Speak!" 

Hoseyn  smiled.  "You  have  flocks  of  famous  breed,  not  a 
weak  creature  among  them.  But  I  love  my  Pearl's  face,  her 
forefront  which  whitens  like  a  yellowish  wave's  cream-crest, 
her  fetlock  foam-splashed  too.  Keep  your  camels.  I  am 
richer  than  thou." 

A  year  later  came  Duhl  again.  "O  Hoseyn,"  said  he,  "you 
are  open-hearted  like  a  prince.  Why  should  I  speak  of  buying? 
Let  Muleykeh  be  your  simple  gift  to  me.  My  son  is  pining 
unto  death  for  her  beauty.  My  wife  bade  me  beg  for  the 
mare  to  save  the  boy's  life.  God  will  repay  you  seven- 
fold." 

Said  Hoseyn,  "You  have  your  son;  I  have  my  Pearl.     Would 


OLD  STORIES  TO  TELL  27 

I  beg  your  son  to  cheer  me  if  Muleykeh  died?  What  would  be 
left  in  life  for  me  without  her?" 

Another  year  passed.  On  a  dark  night  came  Duhl  to  Hoseyn's 
tent.  "I  have  tried  to  buy  and  he  would  not  sell,  though  he 
was  hunger-bitten.  Then  I  tried  guile,  through  that  tale  of 
my  wife  and  son.  Now  I  resort  to  force."  Hoseyn  lay  sleep- 
ing, the  head-stall  of  Muleykeh  thrice  wound  round  his  wrist. 
Near  by,  all  saddled  for  pursuit  should  anyone  steal  away  his 
treasure,  stood  a  second  steed,  Muleykeh's  sister,  almost  as 
fleet.  Cautiously  entering  the  tent,  Duhl  cuts  the  head-stall, 
tightens  the  girth,  springs  to  Muleykeh's  back,  and  *'is  launched 
on  the  desert  like  bolt  from  bow." 

Up  starts  the  plundered  man.  Though  he  is  crushed  with 
grief,  his  head  is  clear.  He  springs  to  the  saddle  and  is  off  in  pur- 
suit. Nearer  he  draws  and  nearer.  Now  they  are  racing  almost 
neck  by  flank.  The  robber  knows  not  how  to  call  out  the 
mare's  best  speed.  She  misses  the  touch  of  her  master's  hand, 
the  sound  of  his  voice.  Will  she  be  overtaken,  she  who  has 
never  been  beaten  in  race?  Her  sister  is  mad  with  hope. 
But  Hoseyn  —  Hoseyn  in  anger  —  shouts,  "  Dog  Duhl,  touch 
the  right  ear  and  press  with  your  foot  my  Pearl's  flank!" 

Duhl  was  wise.  He  touched  the  right  ear  and  pressed  her 
flank.  Hearing  her  master's  voice  and  perceiving  who  it  was 
that  urged  redoubled  pace,  Muleykeh  leaped  ahead  and  was 
lost  to  Hoseyn  forevermore. 

When  in  the  sunrise  Hoseyn  sat  upon  the  ground  weeping 
and  neighbors  came  to  question  why  he  grieved,  he  told  the 
whole  story  from  beginning  to  end,  and  how  his  Pearl  might 
have  been  overtaken  had  he  not  cried  out  to  the  clumsy  rider. 
And  they  jeered  him,  one  and  all.  **Poor  Hoseyn,  crazed 
past  hope!  To  hold  your  tongue  were  easy;  had  you  kept 
quiet,  Muleykeh,  the  child  of  your  heart,  your  life,  would  still 
be  here!" 

"Speak  not,  and  see  my  horse  beaten  in  speed?"  wept  Hoseyn. 
**You  never  have  loved  my  Pearl." 

Thus  runs  the  tale  as  we  find  it  in  Browning's  Muleykeh, 
but  the  poet  tells  the  story  far  better  than  I. 


28  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 


EXERCISE  3 


It  was  an  ''old  gray  mouse,  mith  a  merry  imnkle  in  his 
eye,''  who  pointed  out  that  the  plan  for  belling  the  cat  had 
one  serious  drawback.  Could  the  words  in  italics  be  spared, 
or  do  they  help  you  to  get  the  picture?  In  the  story  en- 
titled The  Sword  of  Damocles  we  are  not  simply  told  that 
the  king  prepared  an  elaborate  banquet;  details  are  given, 
not  many,  but  enough  to  impress  the  idea  that  the  banquet 
was  an  unusually  fine  one.  In  An  Eastern  Tale  we  are  told 
what  passes  through  the  mind  of  the  thief  as  he  creeps  into 
Hoseyn's  tent,  that  dark  night.  Little  details  make  a  story 
"come  to  life."  They  may  concern  outward  events,  the 
actual  happenings.  They  may  concern  what  goes  on  in 
the  mind;  or  they  may  have  to  do  with  the  expression  of 
the  face,  or  with  gestures  which  betray  emotions.  None 
of  the  stories  we  have  had  thus  far  is  remarkable  in  its  at- 
tention to  details,  nor  are  the  stories  which  follow  unusual  in 
this  respect;  but  be  careful  not  to  neglect  such  details  as 
there  are.  Remember  your  listeners;  remember  that  de- 
tails help  the  imagination  to  picture  things. 

Make  yourself  familiar  vnth  the  two  stories  that  follow  and 
prepare  to  tell  them  in  class.  Dont  forget  any  of  the  little  de- 
tails.    Be  careful  not  to  overwork  the  word  and. 

1.  The  Winning  of  Rosamond 

A  certain  king  had  an  only  daughter  named  Rosamond.  She 
was  entrancingly  beautiful,  as  every  story-princess  should  be; 
but  that  was  not  all.  Ever  since  her  childhood  days  she  had 
been  the  fleetest  of  runners. 

Now  the  king  issued  a  proclamation  that  whoever  should 
win  a  race  from  his  daughter  might  marry  her,  and  whoever 
married  her  should  succeed  to  the  throne.  He  imposed,  how- 
ever, one  stern  condition.  Whoever  failed  in  the  race  must 
forfeit    his    head!      Even   under   this   stern   condition,    many 


OLD  STORIES  TO  TELL  29 

ventured;  for  the  maiden  was  very  beautiful,  and  thrones, 
in  those  days,  were  considered  more  desirable  than  they 
are  at  present.  Many  ventured,  and  all  perished  in  the 
attempt. 

Now  there  was  a  young  man,  extremely  poor  and  by  no 
means  of  noble  birth,  named  Abibas.  When  he  read  the 
proclamation,  he  said  to  himself,  "What  a  fine  thing  it  would 
be,  not  only  for  me  but  for  all  my  family,  if  I  should  win  the 
princess.  If  I  fail,  it  will  but  mean  one  poor  man  the  less." 
Abibas,  however,  was  not  only  venturesome  but  clever,  as  you 
shall  shortly  see.  First  he  made  a  wreath  of  roses,  for  he  had 
heard  that  roses  were  a  favorite  with  the  princess.  Then  he 
procured  a  sash  of  finest  silk.  "What  maiden,"  reasoned 
he,  "does  not  like  pretty  things  to  wear!"  Last  of  all  he 
purchased  a  beautiful  bag,  this  too  of  finest  silk,  in  which  he 
placed  a  golden  ball  inscribed  as  follows:  "Who  plays  with  me 
shall  never  grow  tired  of  play."  Concealing  these  treasures 
in  his  blouse,  he  proceeded  to  the  palace  and  knocked  at  the 
gate. 

Now  the  princess  stood  at  the  window.  You  can  imagine 
her  feelings  when  she  saw  this  ragged  young  fellow  and  heard 
him  boldly  make  known  his  errand  to  the  porter.  Her  face 
burned  with  anger;  yet  being  a  dutiful  daughter,  she  prepared 
for  the  contest. 

The  race  began.  Abibas  would  soon  have  been  left  behind  — 
for  though  he  was  fleet,  the  princess  ran  like  the  wind  —  had 
he  not  quickly  taken  from  his  blouse  the  wreath  and  skillfully 
thrown  it  upon  Rosamond's  head.  Roses!  her  favorite  flower 
—  how  beautiful  they  were  and  how  fragrant !  She  paused  to 
enjoy  them,  and  Abibas,  seizing  the  opportunity,  rushed  ahead. 
Instantly  noting  what  had  happened,  Rosamond  threw  the 
wreath  aside  and  darted  ahead,  crying,  "Never  shall  the  king's 
daughter  marry  such  a  miserable  man  as  thou!" 

But  just  as  she  was  on  the  point  of  passing  him,  he  drew 
forth  the  girdle  and  threw  it  at  her  feet.  Poor  maiden!  The 
temptation  was  too  great.  She  stooped  and  picked  it  up. 
It  was  very  beautiful;  she  must  bind  it  about  her  waist.  And 
while  she  was  doing  this,  Abibas  shot  ahead. 


30  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

Tears  of  anger  filled  the  eyes  of  the  princess  as  she  saw  the 
consequence  of  her  folly.  Off  she  tore  the  girdle,  and  speeding 
faster  than  ever,  once  more  she  overtook  the  panting  runner. 
"Fool,"  she  shrilled,  "thou  shalt  never  marry  me!"  Faster 
and  faster  she  ran;  but  Abibas,  springing  forward,  threw  at 
her  feet  the  silken  bag.  She  stooped  and  picked  it  up,  and 
having  it  in  her  hands,  she  must  open  it  to  see  what  it 
contained.  Reading  the  inscription,  *'  Who  plays  with  me  shall 
never  grow  tired  of  play,"  she  played  so  long  that  Abibas 
came  first  to  the  goal.  They  were  married,  but  whether  they 
lived  happily  ever  after,  the  tale  does  not  tell. 

Adapted  from  Gesta  Romanorum 

2.  The  House  Dog  and  the  Wolf 

A  lean,  hungry  wolf  chanced  one  moonlight  night  to  fall  in 
with  a  plump,  well-fed  house  dog.  After  the  first  compliments 
had  been  passed  between  them,  the  wolf  said,  "How  is  it, 
my  friend,  that  you  are  so  sleek.'*  How  well  your  food  agrees 
with  you.  Here  am  I  striving  for  a  living  night  and  day,  and 
barely  able  to  save  myself  from  starving." 

"Well,"  said  the  dog,  "if  you  would  fare  like  me,  you  have 
only  to  do  as  I  do." 

"Indeed,"  replied  the  wolf,  "and  what  is  that.'*" 

"Why,  just  guard  the  master's  house  and  keep  oflF  the  thieves 
at  night." 

"With  all  my  heart,"  said  the  wolf;  "for  at  present  I  have 
but  a  sorry  time  of  it.  This  woodland  life,  with  its  frosts  and 
rains,  is  sharp  work  for  me.  To  have  a  warm  roof  over  my  head 
and  plenty  of  victuals  always  at  hand  will,  methinks,  be  no 
bad  exchange." 

"True,"  replied  the  dog;  "therefore  you  have  nothing  to 
do  but  to  follow  me." 

Now  as  they  were  jogging  along  together,  the  wolf  noticed 
a  mark  on  the  dog's  neck  and  could  not  resist  asking  what  it 
meant. 

"Pooh!  nothing  at  all,"  said  the  dog. 

"Nay,  but  pray " 


OLD  STORIES  TO  TELL  31 

*'0h,  a  mere  trifle;  perhaps  the  collar  to  which  my  chain  is 
fastened " 

*' Chain!"  interrupted  the  wolf;  "you  don't  mean  that  you 
cannot  rove  when  and  where  you  please?" 

"Why,  not  exactly  that,  perhaps.  You  see  I  am  looked  upon 
as  rather  fierce;  so  they  sometimes  tie  me  up  in  the  daytime. 
But  I  assure  you  I  have  perfect  liberty  at  night;  and  my  master 
feeds  me  off  his  own  plate,  and  the  servants  give  me  their  tit- 
bits, and  I  am  such  a  favorite,  and But  what  is  the  matter? 

Where  are  you  going?" 

"Oh,  good  night  to  you,"  said  the  wolf.  "You  are  welcome 
to  your  dainties;  but  for  me,  a  dry  crust  with  liberty  rather 
than  a  king's  luxury  with  a  chain." 

From  Aesop^s  Fables 

EXERCISE  4 

Perhaps  you  have  noticed,  while  listening  to  classmates, 
that  when  they  reproduce  stories  they  change  direct  dis- 
course to  indirect.  That  is,  they  report  in  a  general  way  the 
substance  of  what  the  characters  say  rather  than  the  actual 
words  spoken.  For  example,  you  may  have  heard  some  one 
report  the  conversation  between  the  merchants  and  the 
dervish  after  this  fashion:  "The  dervish  asked  if  the  camel 
was  not  blind  in  one  eye  and  lame  in  the  left  leg;  and  the 
merchants  said  that  he  was.  Then  the  dervish  asked  if  the 
camel  had  not  lost  a  front  tooth,  and  they  said  that  he  had 
lost  a  front  tooth."  Dialogue  reported  directly,  word  for 
word,  is  better.  It  not  only  adds  crispness,  but  is  a  great 
aid  to  the  imagination  of  the  listener,  who  is  made  to  feel 
almost  as  if  he  were  present  and  overhearing  the  characters 
as  they  speak. 

Review  all  of  the  stories  given  thus  far  in  this  Course.  Pre- 
pare to  tell  them  in  class. 

Keep  in  mind  the  following  things:  1.  Before  you  can 
tell  a  story  well,  you  must  master  it  by  imagining  it  clearly. 
2.  Using  strange,  unfamiliar  words  may  interfere  with  the 


32  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

listener's  ability  to  get  a  clear  impression.  3.  Employing 
and-a  may  annoy  the  listener,  make  him  think  of  you  rather 
than  of  the  story.  4.  Details  help  bring  a  story  to  life, 
especially  details  that  describe  emotions.  5.  Conversation 
reported  word  for  word  adds  crispness.  6.  Finally,  try  to 
tell  the  story  as  if  it  had  never  been  told  before.  It  will  help 
not  a  little  if  you  will  stand  facing  the  class  and  look  straight 
into  the  eyes  of  the  listeners.     If  you  feel  nervous,  smile! 

EXERCISE  5 

You  are  at  the  story  book  age.  What  is  the  most  inter- 
esting book  you  have  read  during  the  past  year?  Is  it  one 
that  you  can  recommend  to  others?  Is  there  a  chapter  in 
it  more  interesting  than  the  rest?  Does  not  some  one  in- 
cident, perhaps  a  thrilling  adventure,  at  once  come  to  your 
mind? 

Prepare  to  relate  to  the  class  an  incident  from  a  book  that  you 
like  well  enough  to  recommend. 

In  performing  this  task  it  will  be  well  to  adopt  a  plan. 
First  tell  the  title  of  the  book  and  the  author's  name.  Then 
give,  in  one  or  two  sentences  only,  a  general  idea  of  what 
the  book  is  about.  Finally  narrate  the  particular  incident 
that  has  captured  your  interest  —  the  happening  or  series 
of  happenings  which  you  are  sure  will  prove  interesting  to 
your  hearers. 

EXERCISE  6 

From  all  the  stories  given  thus  far^  select  the  One  you  like 
best.  Read  it  carefully  again;  then  put  the  book  aside  and  re- 
produce the  story  in  writing^  using  words  of  your  own  unless 
the  language  of  the  book  happens  to  occur  to  you. 

Here  are  a  few  suggestions:  It  is  well  to  make  two  copies 
of  a  written  exercise.  This  is  no  more  than  everj^  careful 
business  man  does  when  composing  a  really  important  letter. 


OLD  STORIES  TO  TELL  33 

In  making  the  first  draft  use  only  moderate  care  in  regard 
to  spelling,  punctuation,  and  paragraphing;  keep  your  mind 
on  the  story.  But  in  revising  this  first  draft,  look  closely  at 
each  sentence  to  see  that  it  is  correct.  Read  it  out  loud. 
The  ear  is  sometimes  a  better  critic  than  the  eye. 

Perhaps  you  have  already  observed  how  conversation  is 
reported,  each  speech  beginning  on  a  line  indented.  In- 
dented means  bitten  into.  Make  the  "bites"  an  inch  deep. 
Probably  you  have  noticed  also  that  quotation  marks  are 
used  to  set  off  the  words  of  a  speaker,  and  that  capitals  are 
sometimes  employed,  but  not  always,  when  a  speech  is 
interrupted  by  said  he  or  some  such  expression.  It  is  all 
explained  in  detail  on  page  65.  In  addition  to  indentions 
in  dialogue,  you  will  note  that  there  are  a  few  paragraph 
indentions.  Do  not  make  too  many  of  these;  just  a  few 
will  be  sufiicient  to  show  the  broad  divisions  or  sections  of 
the  story. 


By  way  of  conclusion,  read  the  following  composition,  in 
which  bits  of  advice  given  in  connection  with  the  preceding 
exercises  are  brought  together. 

Story  Telling 

An  old  recipe  for  rabbit  pie  begins  with  "First  catch  the 
rabbit."  A  good  recipe  for  story  telling  might  well  begin  with 
"First  catch  the  story."  "Catching"  the  story  means  more 
than  merely  reading  it  in  a  book  or  hearing  it  told.  It  includes 
making  it  yours  through  imagination.  That  is  what  words 
are  for  —  to  feed  your  imagination,  help  you  to  lose  yourself 
till  you  see  and  feel  as  the  characters  in  the  story  see  and  feel. 

Then  catch  your  audience.  The  surest  way  to  do  this  is 
just  to  let  yourself  go,  swinging  along  at  a  good  pace.  Keep 
the  listeners'  imagination  busy  by  giving  all  details  that  are 
really  necessary  as  aids  in  picturing  things.  Introduce  dialogue, 
for  dialogue  adds  an  air  of  reality.  And  bear  in  mind  a  few 
"don'ts."     Don't  blindly  repeat  words  from  memory,  lest  the 


84  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

listeners  say  to  themselves,  "He's  not  telling  us  anything; 
he's  just  reciting.''  Don't  let  your  eyes  slip  away.  "He's 
talking  to  a  crack  in  the  floor,"  some  one  may  say,  "or  to  the 
trees  outside  the  window."  Don't  use  strange  words,  for 
strange  words  blur  things.  Don't  fall  into  the  and-a  habit 
or  any  other  that  may  draw  attention  away  from  the  story. 
And  above  all  be  careful  not  to  "  let  the  cat  out  of  the  bag,"  as 
it  is  called.  That  is,  keep  back  the  little  surprise  that  usually 
comes  at  the  tip-end  of  a  good  story;  for  just  as  soon  as  the 
secret  is  out,  away  goes  the  attention  of  your  audience.  If  you 
are  writing  a  story,  be  careful  about  penmanship,  punctuation, 
indention,  and  other  little  things  which  make  it  easy  for  the 
reader  to  get  your  message. 

Finally,  remember  that  story  telling  is  a  form  of  entertain- 
ment. Accept  your  responsibility  as  an  entertainer,  then, 
and  go  about  it  earnestly,  yet  with  a  smile  on  your  face  rather 
than  with  a  wooden  expression.  Do  your  part  cheerfully. 
Make  story  telling  a  game  rather  than  a  task.  It  is  a  game, 
and  one  that  requires  skill  —  skill  in  capturing  the  imagination 
of  those  before  you,  making  them  see,  through  imagination,  all 
that  you  wish  to  have  them  and  feel  the  way  you  wish  to  have 
them.  It  is  well  worth  while  to  learn  to  play  the  game  well, 
for  ability  to  move  others  by  controlling  their  imagination  is 
necessary  in  many  a  great  undertaking. 


DRILL  EXERCISES 

THE  DICTIONARY 

The  dictionary  is  a  collection  of  condensed  compositions, 
each  telling  all  that  the  average  person  cares  to  know  about 
some  word:  how  it  is  spelled  and  pronounced,  and  what  are 
its  meanings.  Frequently  a  brief  sentence  containing  the 
word  properly  employed  is  given,  and  sometimes  one  or 
more  synonyms,  or  terms  which  have  nearly  the  same  mean- 
ing. The  dictionary  does  still  more.  Whenever  possible,  it 
gives  the  life-story  of  a  word  —  where  it  came  from,  what  it 
meant  originally,  and  what  changes  in  meaning  it  has  un- 
dergone; for  words  —  at  least  some  of  them  —  do  change 
in  meaning  from  age  to  age.  Many  of  these  life-stories  are 
intensely  interesting. 

But  there  is  another  way  of  regarding  the  dictionary.  It 
is  a  law  book.  Ours  is  a  free  country,  yet  we  are  not  free 
to  do  what  we  please.  For  the  common  good,  we  submit 
to  restraint  of  many  kinds.  Words  are  free;  but  when  we 
misuse  them,  we  become  law-breakers.  The  dictionary, 
stern  book,  lays  down  laws  regarding  spelling,  pronunciation, 
meanings.     Word-respecting  people  obey  these  laws. 

Own  a  dictionary  as  soon  as  you  are  able.  A  dictionary 
like  the  one  which  in  all  probability  lies  on  the  reference 
table  in  your  schoolroom,  a  big  volume  containing  hundreds 
of  thousands  of  words,  would  be  not  only  expensive  but 
too  bulky  for  frequent  use.  There  are  many  **  pocket " 
editions,  costing  fifty  cents  or  less.  One  of  these  would 
be  better  than  nothing,  but  it  contains  too  little  to  be  of 

35 


36  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

much  value.  For  daily  use,  the  Students  Standard  Dic- 
tionary and  Webster* s  Secondary  School  Dictionary  are  per- 
haps the  most  satisfactory. 

Form  the  habit  of  consulting  a  dictionary  freely.  See 
what  the  law  says  about  this  term  and  that  which  you  are 
using  repeatedly,  yet  with  a  suspicion  that  you  may  be 
using  it  improperly.  Lay  down  the  book  you  are  reading, 
now  and  then,  and  look  up  the  meaning  of  some  new  word. 
If  an  expression  has  an  odd  sound,  and  you  find  yourself 
wondering  where  the  word  came  from,  or  how  it  obtained  its 
present  meaning,  turn  to  the  dictionary.  Perhaps  it  will 
tell  you  precisely  what  you  wish  to  know.  Practice  of  this 
kind  soon  becomes  fascinating,  and  it  strengthens  powers  of 
expression  in  a  wonderful  way. 


By  way  of  testing  your  vocabulary y  make  out  a  listy  in  neatly 
arranged  columns,  of  one  hundred  words  which  you  are  sure 
you  have  mastered  —  terms  that  you  can  spell  and  pronounce 
correctly,  and  can  use  with  their  proper  meanings.  Unless 
forced  to  do  so,  do  not  include  such  little  words  as  the,  for,  by, 
and  it. 

Having  finished  the  list,  read  it  to  the  class.  Perhaps  some 
one  unit  discover  slips  in  pronunciation.  Then  exchange  list^ 
with  a  classmate.     He  may  ferret  out  a  few  errors  in  spelling. 


Of  course  you  can  say  the  alphabet;  you  are  perfectly  sure 
of  it.  Then  arrange  alphabetically,  just  a^  they  would  be  ar- 
ranged in  a  dictionary,  the  first  fifty  words  in  your  list. 
This  is  a  practical  task,  as  any  business  man  will  tell  you.  For 
the  purpose  of  discovering  errors,  exchange  lists  with  a  class- 
mate. 


DRILL  EXERCISES  37 


Although  your  vocabulary  is  small,  probably  it  is  better,  in 
some  respects,  than  your  neighbor's.  It  may  even  contain 
words  with  which  your  teacher  is  unfamiliar.  Test  this  in 
the  following  way.  Make  a  list  of  words  suggested  by  any  one 
of  the  titles  found  below.  Be  sure  that  no  word  is  misspelled. 
Be  prepared  to  explain  the  meaning  of  any  word  which  is 
not  understood  by  the  rest  of  the  class. 

1.  Words  connected  with  some  sport  or  game;   for  example, 

the  words  connected  with  basket  ball 

2.  Words   brought  into   prominence   by   the   war,   such   as 

camouflage,  zeppelin,  trench 

3.  Words    that    live    in    kitchens    mainly  —  kettle,    skillet, 

poach,  simmer,  etc. 

4.  The  Boy  Scout's  vocabulary  —  patrol,  scout,  tenderfoot, 

etc.;   or  the  Campfire  Girl's  vocabulary 

5.  Words  that  have  to  do  with  automobiles,  such  as  car- 

buretor, accelerator 

6.  Dry  goods  words 

7.  Grocery  store  words 

8.  Words  that  live  chiefly  on  farms 

9.  City  words  that  might  confuse  a  man  from  the  country 

10.  The  carpenter's  every-day  vocabulary 

11.  Words  used  in  buying  and  selling 

12.  Words  that  live  mainly  on  the  street  and  are  ashamed  to 

appear  in  good  society 

13.  Words  that  you  consider  rather  too  prim  and  proper  for 

daily  use 


Arrange  the  words  called  for  in  the  preceding  exercise  in 
alphabetical  order.  Exchange  lists  with  a  classmate  and  be 
prepared  to  explain  the  meaning  of  any  term  with  which  he  is 
not  familiar.  Explaining  the  meaning  of  a  term,  accurately, 
in  correct  English,  is  a  difficult  task. 


38  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 


/  Read,  in  any  newspaper  or  magazine,  for  twenty  minutes, 
and  make  a  list  of  all  the  words  whose  meanings  you  do  not 
know.  Include  every  word  that  you  are  not  perfectly  sure 
about.  Do  not  consult  a  dictionary;  bring  your  list  to  class 
and  see  if  your  classmates  cannot  help  you. 

Make  a  second  list  of  words  whose  meanings  you  know  per- 
fectly, but  which  you  suspect  some  of  the  members  of  your  class 
may  not  know.     Be  prepared  to  explain. 


The  word  line  has  over  fifty  different  meanings;  the 
word  head  has  over  forty.  Comparatively  few  nouns  are 
used  to  name  but  a  single  thing. 

Without  consulting  a  dictionary,  make  a  list,  alphabetically 
arranged,  of  at  least  ten  words  each  of  which  has  at  least  two 
meanings. 

PUNCTUATION 

Here  are  the  marks  commonly  used  in  punctuation: 

.  period  (  )  marks  of  parenthesis 

,  comma  —  dash 
;  semicolon  '  apostrophe 

:  colon  ?  interrogation  point 

"  quotation  marks  !    exclamation  point 

These  marks  are  for  clearness.  They  help  the  reader  to  see 
at  a  glance  what  words  go  together.  They  should  be  used 
sparingly.  A  page  peppered  with  commas  is  more  confus- 
ing than  if  not  punctuated  at  all.  If  sentences  are  well 
constructed,  few  marks  are  necessary.  Are  not  the  follow- 
ing reasonably  clear?  Would  anything  be  gained  by  sprin- 
kling in  commas? 


DRILL  EXERCISES  39 

1.  It  is  said  that  a  well  regulated  sneeze  calls  into  play  one 

hundred  ten  muscles.     15  words 

2.  The  reputation  of  being  absolutely  accurate  and  pains- 

taking is  equal  to  a  large  amount  of  capital  to  a  young 
man  going  into  business  for  himself.     25  words 

3.  I  have  recognized  the  voice  of  a  friend  when  it  came  over 

four  hundred  miles  on  a  telephone  wire  as  plainly  as  if 
he  had  been  in  the  next  room.     30  words 

4.  A   long   procession   of   lights   issuing   from   the   fort   was 

seen  to  flit  across  the  black  face  of  the  waters  in  the 
dead  of  night  and  the  whole  city  wall  between  the  Cow- 
gate  and  the  Tower  of  Burgundy  fell  with  a  loud  crash. 
43  words 

Punctuation  marks  must  be  used  correctly.  Mr.  Edison 
once  failed  to  secure  a  valuable  patent  because  in  his  ap- 
plication for  the  patent  a  comma  had  been  incorrectly  used. 
That  one  little  comma  changed  the  meaning  completely  and 
spoiled  everything.  Even  though  your  knowledge  of  punc- 
tuation is  not  very  great,  you  should  be  able  to  see  that  in 
the  following  sentences  the  meaning  is  controlled  by  the 
marks. 

1.  The  boy  said  the  man  was  trying  to  stand  on  his  head. 
"The  boy,"  said  the  man,  "was  trying  to  stand  on  his 

head." 

2.  We  manufacture  everything  made  out  of  canvas,  bags, 

tents,  awnings,  etc. 
We  manufacture  everything  made  out  of  canvas:    bags, 
tents,  awnings,  etc. 

3.  Go  see  Breakers  Ahead,  the  best  melodrama  ever  written, 

by  John  Nemo. 
Go  see  Breakers  Ahead,  the  best  melodrama  ever  written 
by  John  Nemo. 

4.  He  asked  me  what  I  was  doing  and  I  said  nothing. 

He  asked  me  what  I  was  doing  and  I  said,  "Nothing." 

5.  He  was  asked  to  take  the  place  of  the  third  runner  who 

had  sprained  an  ankle. 


40  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

He  was  asked  to  take  the  place  of  the  third  runner,  who 
had  sprained  an  ankle. 

Every  lady  in  this  land 
Hath  twenty  nails  upon  each  hand, 
Five  and  twenty  on  hands  and  feet; 
And  this  is  true  without  conceit. 

Every  lady  in  this  land 
Hath  twenty  nails  —  upon  each  hand 
Five,  and  twenty  on  hands  and  feet; 
And  this  is  true  without  conceit. 


Make  on  the  blackboard  the  ten  marks  used  in  punctuation 
and  write  after  each  its  name.     Watch  your  spelling. 

Rule .  —  Avoid  placing  a  punctuation  mark  of  any  kind 
between  such  parts  of  a  sentence  as  are  closely  related  and 
are  in  their  natural  order. 

Subject  and  predicate  are  closely  related.  Their  natural 
order  is  subject  first,  then  predicate.  To  place  a  mark  be- 
tween subject  and  predicate  when  they  are  in  this  natural 
order  is  undesirable,  and  very  seldom  is  it  necessary.  The 
verb  and  its  complement  are  closely  related.  The  natural 
order  is  verb  first  and  then  complement.  It  is  undesirable 
to  separate  the  two  by  any  mark.  When  an  adjective  modi- 
fier comes  immediately  before  the  word  it  modifies,  avoid 
separating  the  two.  Keep  together  words  that  go  together 
naturally;  do  not  let  punctuation  marks  intrude.  Often  in 
reading  we  pause  between  an  adjective  and  the  noun  follow- 
ing it,  between  subject  and  predicate,  and  between  a  verb 
and  its  object;  but  forget  this  when  you  punctuate. 

Rule. — The  period  is  used  after  a  declarative  or  an  imper- 
ative sentence. 


DRILL  EXERCISES  41 

This  is  a  simple  rule.  Probably  it  is  the  first  rule  for 
punctuation  that  you  were  ever  taught,  but  it  may  be  that 
you  have  not  mastered  it.  You  know  well  enough  what  the 
words  declarative  and  imperative  mean,  but  it  may  be 
that  you  do  not  know  what  a  sentence  is.  You  cannot 
quickly  tell,  perhaps,  whether  a  given  collection  of  words 
forms  one  sentence,  two  sentences,  or  a  part  of  a  sentence. 
Note  the  following: 

(Wrong)  They  came  from  all  directions.  Some  from  up- 
stairs, some  from  downstairs,  some  from  adjoining  rooms. 

(Right)  They  came  from  all  directions,  some  from  upstairs, 
some  from  downstairs,  some  from  adjoining  rooms. 

(Wrong)  Then  she  snatched  the  diamonds  from  him  and  threw 
them  into  the  river.     Where  they  remain  to  this  day. 

(Right)  Then  she  snatched  the  diamonds  from  him  and  threw 
them  into  the  river,  where  they  remain  to  this  day. 

Why,  in  the  examples  marked  (Wrong)  is  the  period  in- 
correctly used?  If  you  cannot  tell,  you  have  not  mastered 
the  rule.     Study  the  following: 

(Wrong)  I  felt  a  tug  at  my  line  and  pulled  up  a  big  fish, 

it  was  a  flounder. 
(Right)  I  felt  a  tug  at  my  line  and  pulled  up  a  big  fish. 

It  was  a  flounder. 

(Wrong)  At  that  moment  he  was  startled  by  a  timid  knock- 
ing, hastily  slipping  on  his  coat,  he  opened  the  door. 

(Right)  At  that  moment  he  was  startled  by  a  timid  knock- 
ing.    Hastily  slipping  on  his  coat,  he  opened  the  door. 

Can  you  see  why  the  examples  marked  (Wrong)  are  incor- 
rectly punctuated?  If  a  group  of  words  contains  a  subject 
and  a  predicate  and  makes  sense  when  standing  alone,  it  is 
a  sentence.  If  a  group  of  words  standing  alone  does  not 
make  sense,  even  though  the  group  contains  a  subject  and 


42  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

a  predicate,  it  is  not  a  sentence.  Where  they  remain  to  this 
day  is  not  a  sentence;  it  is  but  part  of  a  sentence.  It  was 
a  flounder  is  a  complete  sentence.  So  too  is  /  Jelt  a  tug  at 
my  line  and  pulled  up  a  big  fish.  To  apply  the  rule  accurately, 
one  must  know  what  a  sentence  is.  He  must  be  able  to  see 
where  a  sentence  begins  and  where  it  ends. 

Rule.  —  The  period  is  used  after  an  abbreviation. 

This  simple  rule  is  illustrated  in  the  following  sentence: 
Mr.  A.  B.  Clarke  of  Nashville^  Tenn.,  was  present. 


2 

Write  on  the  blackboard  the  first  three  rules  for  punctuation. 

3 

Criticize  the  punctuation  of  the  following: 

1    I  know  you  will  like  the  book,  it  is  the  most  interesting 
I  have  read  this  year. 

2.  By    the    time    the     guests     had     arrived,    you    should 

have    seen    him.     Covered   with   mud    from    head    to 
foot. 

3.  The  great  game  began  promptly  at  three  o'clock.     The 

home  team  kicking  off  to  their  opponents. 
4    The   college   catalogue   will   tell   you   all   about   it,   why 
not  send  for  one? 

5.  Til  ton,  our  half-back,  excelled  in  speed  and  in  strength 

too.     While   Farrel,   his   opponent,   excelled   in   nerve 
and  judgment. 

6.  Mr.  Snow  is  a  tall  man,  but  carries  himself  erect,  he  has 

gray  hair  and  a  ruddy  countenance. 

7.  The  pavement  was  very  slippery  and  the  streets  were 

crowded.     Autos  coming  and  going.     I  thought  there 
would  surely  be  a  crash,  my  fears  were  realized. 

8.  Please  come,  if  you  cannot,  let  me  know  by  Tuesday. 


DRILL  EXERCISES  43 

9.   At  last  a  vote  was  taken.     The  result  proving  beyond 
question  that  Miles  was  the  favorite. 
10.    Please  excuse  Martha  from  reciting  today,  because  of 
illness  she  was  unable  to  prepare  her  lessons. 

Rule. — The  comma  is  used  to  separate  the  terms  of  a  series. 

The  series  may  consist  of  several  nouns,  subjects  of  the 
same  verb,  several  verbs  having  the  same  subject,  several 
modifiers  (adjectives,  adverbs,  phrases,  clauses)  modifying 
the  same  word.  That  is,  the  terms  must  be  in  what  is  called 
parallel  construction.  When  there  are  conjunctions  be- 
tween the  terms,  commas  are  seldom  necessary.  If,  how- 
ever, only  the  last  two  terms  are  joined  by  a  conjunction, 
the  comma  is  used  regardless  of  the  conjunction.  Here  are 
examples: 

Monday  and  Tuesday  and  Wednesday  were  pleasant. 

Monday,  Tuesday,  and  Wednesday  were  pleasant. 

It  was  large,  smooth,  round. 

He  went  down  the  road,  through  the  pasture,  and  into  the 

woods. 
Tell  us  when  he  did  it,  how  he  did  it,  and  why  he  did  it. 

Be  careful,  when  punctuating  a  series  of  modifiers,  not 
to  place  a  comma  between  the  last  modifier  and  the  noun 
it  modifies. 

(Wrong)  An   old,  shabbily  dressed,   forlorn  looking,   soldier 

went  limping  by. 
(Right)  An    old,    shabbily  dressed,    forlorn    looking    soldier 

went  limping  by. 

Sometimes,  however,  the  modifiers  follow  the  noun.  Then 
the  last  term  must  be  set  off.  This  is  illustrated  in  the  fol- 
lowing sentence: 

An  old  soldier,  shabbily  dressed,  forlorn  looking,  went  limp- 
ing by. 


'44  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 


Pick  out  the  terms  in  each  series  and  show  that  they  are  in 
parallel  construction.     Punctuate  the  sentences. 

1.  Punctuality  is  the  politeness  of  kings  the  duty  of  gentle- 
men the  necessity  of  business  men.  2.  Chrysanthemums 
require  very  rich  soil  must  have  sun  and  do  best  against  a 
building  or  wall.  3.  One  wave  smashed  like  an  avalanche 
against  the  chart  house,  tearing  away  everything  loose  bending 
the  steel  sides  of  the  deck  house  and  breaking  the  glass  of  the 
lookout  windows  on  the  bridge.  4.  Tom  took  a  last  look  at  the 
fire  at  the  still  woods  at  the  lake  glimmering  down  through  the 
trees.  5.  Their  families  their  friends  and  their  fellow  citizens 
will  be  proud  when  they  learn  of  their  death.  6.  Care  should 
be  observed  in  using  a  ladder  for  painting  for  putting  up  and 
removing  awnings  and  shutters  and  for  other  work  about  the 
house.  7.  The  test  was  to  tie  four  knots  tell  the  history  of  the 
flag  and  give  the  Scout  sign  the  Scout  law  and  the  Scout  oath. 
8.  The  pick  stone-saw  wedge  chisel  and  other  tools  were  already 
in  use  when  the  Pyramids  were  built.  9.  North  south  east 
and  west  call  for  the  capital  letter  when  they  are  used  to  desig- 
nate sections  of  a  country.  10.  Lunch  consisted  of  cold  tongue 
bread  and  butter  and  raspberry  tarts. 


COURSE  II 

COMPOSITION 

True  Narratives 

DRILL 
Word  Games 
Spelling 

Words  often  confused 

Punctuation 

Quotation  marks 


TRUE  NARRATIVES 

Not  every  story  is  so  fortunate  as  to  gain  long  life  through 
being  printed  and  becoming  literature.  Many  quite  as  en- 
tertaining as  those  found  in  the  preceding  Course  simply 
pass  about  from  mouth  to  mouth  for  a  few  months  or  for  a 
few  years  and  then  are  forgotten.  Every  family  has  a 
score  or  more  of  interesting  stories  which  mother,  father^  or 
uncle,  or  aunt,  or  grandparent  tells  concerning  what  hap- 
pened long  ago.     Here  is  an  example. 

As  Father  TeUs  It 

One  of  the  stories  my  father  tells  is  about  a  fine  shot  that  he 
made  with  a  pistol  when  he  was  a  boy.  He  likes  to  tell  it  when 
he  has  been  beaten  at  target-shooting.  This  is  about  the  way 
it  runs: 

"One  day  we  boys  on  the  farm  got  hold  of  an  old  32  caliber 
pistol.  We  took  it  down  into  the  lot  back  of  the  barn  near  the 
road  and  began  shooting  at  targets  to  see  who  was  the  best 
shot.  I  had  made  some  good  shots  and  of  course  I  felt  quite 
big.  A  little  while  afterward  some  boys  came  along  and  began 
to  say,  'Oh,  you  couldn't  hit  anything.  You  couldn't  hit  the 
broad  side  of  a  barn.'  'I  bet  I  can  hit  that  little  sapling,* 
I  replied,  pointing  to  a  very  small  birch  a  few  rods  away.  They 
all  laughed  and  yelled,  'Prove  it!     Prove  it!' 

"I  cocked  the  pistol  and  slowly  raised  my  arm  until  I  had 
the  bead  on  the  slender  stem  of  the  birch.  Instantly  I  pulled 
the  trigger.  When  the  smoke  had  drifted  away,  there  stood 
the  tree  apparently  untouched.  How  those  boys  did  yell. 
'You  never  hit  it!'  they  cried.  'You  go  and  see,'  I  replied, 
not  for  once  supposing  that  I  had  hit  it.     They  went  to  look, 

47 


48  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

and  had  hardly  touched  the  sapling  when  it  fell  over.     It  had 
been  shot  right  in  two  by  the  bullet. 

"Well,  I  told  them  that  I  guessed  I  wouldn't  shoot  any  more." 

Such  stories,  it  is  true,  are  especially  interesting  to  those 
who  know  the  actors  in  them;  yet  you  will  agree  that  if  all 
the  stories  told  in  twenty-five  different  homes  could  be 
brought  together,  they  would  form  a  collection  far  from  dull. 
Something  of  this  sort  we  can  do,  if  all  will  enter  heartily 
into  the  undertaking. 

EXERCISE  1 

Come  to  class  tomorrow  prepared  to  tell  a  personal  experience 
story  that  has  been  told  to  you  by  some  member  of  your  family. 

But  first  study  the  schoolboy  composition  that  has  been 
used  as  a  model.  Is  the  incident  interesting?  Is  the 
language  stiff  and  bookish,  or  the  kind  we  employ  in  natural 
conversation?  Do  you  like  the  brief  introduction?  Do  you 
like  the  abrupt  way  in  which  the  story  ends?  Is  the  nar- 
rative free  from  errors?  Do  you  think  you  could  improve  it 
a  little  here  and  there? 

EXERCISE  2 

It  is  strange  if  you  have  not  heard,  from  some  member  of 
your  family  or  from  an  acquaintance,  more  than  one  thrilling 
tale  about  the  great  World  War,  stories,  possibly,  in  which 
the  narrators  were  themselves  actors.  If  no  such  tales  have 
come  to  you  in  this  way,  no  doubt  you  will  recall  a  number 
that  you  have  read  in  the  newspapers  or  in  the  many  books 
of  personal  experience  WTitten  by  soldiers. 

Search  your  memory  for  such  a  tale.  Review  it  in  your 
mind  and  prepare  to  tell  it  —  tell  it  well.  Try  to  do  rjour  best 
to  make  the  hour  given  to  war  stories  one  not  soon  to  be  forgotten. 


TRUE  NARRATIVES 


EXERCISE  3 


Write  out  the  story  called  for  in  Exercise  1;  or,  better  stilly 
write  another  story  of  the  same  kind. 

It  will  be  well,  while  doing  this  task,  to  keep  in  mind  a 
simple  outline  like  the  following: 

Time  and  place 
Circumstances  leading  up 
to  the  exciting  moment 
The  exciting  moment 

A  single  sentence,  or  less,  may  be  sufficient  for  the  first  topic, 
but  the  second  may  call  for  several;  for  unless  every  cir- 
cumstance is  made  clear,  the  readers  may  become  confused, 
not  seeing  things  distinctly  but  guessing  at  them,  and  some- 
times guessing  wrong.  The  third  topic,  however,  will  re- 
quire most  care  of  all;  for  at  exciting  moments  a  great  deal 
happens,  the  senses  receive  many  impressions  all  at  once, 
and  the  emotions  are  ever  changing.  Follow  the  chrono- 
logical order  if  possible;  that  is,  keep  going  forward,  telling 
what  happens  in  the  order  in  which  it  happens.  Perhaps 
as  you  narrate  the  incident  a  fourth  topic  will  be  necessary, 
but  that  is  for  you  to  decide. 

Do  not  forget  about  avoiding  and;  employ  it  only  when  it 
is  necessary.  Another  little  error,  very  common,  is  seen  in 
the  sentence  This  boy  he  threw  a  stone  through  the  window- 
pane.  The  word  he  serves  no  useful  purpose;  it  should  be 
omitted. 

Here  is  one  more  hint.  Slang  looks  worse  than  it  sounds, 
so  try  to  get  along  without  it  when  you  write.  Yet  do  not 
be  bookish.  If  you  are  bookish,  some  one  may  say,  "It 
isn't  a  bit  like  him."  That  would  be  severe  criticism.  The 
simple,  familiar  words  that  we  use  every  day,  if  they  are 
wholesome,  are  quite  good  enough.  One  way  to  avoid 
bookishness  is  to  imagine,  as  you  write,  that  you  are  talking 
to  a  friend. 


50  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

EXERCISE  4 

Among  the  best  school  compositions  are  those  which  tell 
of  the  writer's  own  experiences,  particularly  the  happenings 
of  childhood  days.  We  all  have  done  things  which,  as  we 
look  back  on  them,  cause  us  to  smile,  even  though  at  the 
time  they  seemed  almost  tragic,  or  at  least  of  great  im- 
portance. Even  happenings  of  a  later  day,  if  they  are  first 
experiences,  or  if  they  stand  out  in  memory  as  unusual,  are 
often  more  interesting  than  much  that  the  authors  of  story 
books  invent.  Here  are  two  compositions  which  came 
directly  from  personal  experience.  Are  they  interesting? 
Which  is  the  better?  Do  you  notice,  in  the  first  composi- 
tion, how  little  time  is  wasted  in  getting  the  story  started? 
Do  you  find  in  either  composition  a  place  here  and  there 
where  the  English  might  be  improved?  Does  either  com- 
position bring  to  mind  a  story  that  you  could  tell? 

Mr.  Woodchuck 

I  had  often  wondered  what  kind  of  animal  lived  in  the  hole 
on  the  side  of  the  hill  near  the  clearing;  but  I  never  knew  till 
one  day,  as  I  was  coming  home  from  a  morning's  hunt  with 
a  rabbit  in  one  hand  and  my  gun  in  the  other,  I  heard  a  noise 
in  the  brush  near  the  hole.  On  looking  up  I  saw  a  large  wood- 
chuck  eyeing  me  with  as  much  interest  as  I  was  eyeing  him. 
He  was  sitting  on  his  haunches  like  a  dog  begging  for  a  piece 
of  meat.  His  position  gave  me  a  chance  for  a  shot,  but  before 
I  could  raise  my  gun  the  woodchuck  had  popped  into  his  burrow. 

I  wondered  what  to  do,  because  I  wanted  very  much  to  get 
him;  but  I  knew  he  was  very  cunning  and  I  had  no  trap.  At 
last,  however,  I  thought  of  a  plan  which  was  at  least  feasible. 
I  laid  down  the  rabbit  in  a  very  conspicuous  position  in  the 
middle  of  the  road  and  then  went  and  sat  down  a  yard  or  so 
on  the  other  side  of  the  den,  with  my  gun  pointed  where  his 
head  would  pop  up  if  he  came  out  at  all.  I  waited  some  time, 
and  as  I  thought  of  the  cunning  of  the  old  fellow  I  was  going 


TRUE  NARRATIVES  51 

lo  give  up  when  a  furry  gray  head  appeared  at  the  top  of  the 
hole.  As  I  had  hoped,  he  did  not  look  behind  him  but  down  at 
the  road  where  he  had  seen  me  last.  Should  I  shoot  or  not? 
After  a  second's  thought  I  decided  to  wait  and  watch.  Down 
went  the  woodchuck's  head,  for  he  had  seen  the  rabbit  in  the 
road;  but  it  appeared  again,  and  although  he  popped  down 
several  times,  he  at  last  crawled  right  out  and  got  up  on  his 
haunches  right  in  front  of  me,  watching  the  rabbit  with  intense 
interest. 

All  this  time  I  sat  behind  him  with  a  beating  heart,  so 
excited  I  could  hardly  think.  At  last  I  decided  to  shoot. 
Slowly  I  raised  my  gun.  Would  he  hear  the  click  of  the  hammer 
as  I  pulled  it  back?  He  did  not.  At  last  I  got  my  aim.  Bang ! ! 
went  the  gun.  Mr.  Woodchuck  gave  a  blood-curdling  squeal 
and  rolled  down  into  the  road.  He  was  on  his  feet  in  a  second, 
however,  and  into  his  hole  before  I  could  stop  him.  I  could 
hear  him  chattering  with  rage  and  fright,  but  I  believe  he  was 
none  the  worse  for  the  bullet  which  knocked  him  down  the 
bank,  for  since  that  day  as  I  have  come  down  the  road  I  have 
seen  him  disappear  with  unceremonious  haste  into  his  under- 
ground den. 

1.   At  The  Dentist»s 

When  I  was  younger,  about  five  or  six  years  old,  my  one 
great  dread  was  of  the  dentist.  I  would  much  rather  bear  the 
pain  of  a  toothache,  or  if  I  had  a  baby-tooth  loose,  I  would 
rather  tie  a  string  to  it,  the  string  to  an  open  door,  and  then 
slam  the  door  shut,  than  go  to  the  dreaded  dentist's.  I  re- 
member hoping  that  my  teeth  would  not  have  to  be  attended 
to  until  I  was  at  least  twelve  years  old,  for  then  I  thought 
I  should  be  so  old  I  would  be  brave.  But  my  hopes  were  in 
vain.  At  length  I  had  to  confess  to  my  mother  that  I  had  a 
loose  tooth,  after  having  lived  for  two  weeks  in  fear  that  some- 
time I  might  swallow  it  in  my  sleep. 

My  grandmother  took  me  to  the  dentist,  who  was  my  uncle, 
and  how  I  screamed  as  I  eat  in  the  waitingroom.  I  remember 
grandmother  tried  to  interest  me  in  a  china  bulldog  standing 
on  the  mantel,  but  it  was  of  no  use.     Then  my  turn  came. 


52  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

My  uncle  came  out  and  smiled,  then  took  me  into  the  other 
room  and  talked  about  everything  except  having  teeth  pulled. 
He  gave  me  quicksilver  to  play  with,  and  showed  me  a  set  of 
teeth  that  opened  and  shut  mechanically,  and  then  he  slyly 
drew  a  pair  of  pinchers  from  a  drawer. 

I  screamed!  My  other  uncle  came  in  from  the  workroom 
and  told  me  it  wouldn't  hurt.  My  grandmother  coaxed  me 
with  promises  of  little  dolls,  candy,  soda,  anything.  I  screamed 
louder!  My  uncle  put  down  his  pinchers.  "I'll  be  bound 
before  I'll  pull  out  her  tooth  and  have  her  hate  me  all  her  life. 
Take  her  somewhere  else!"     He  stalked  from  the  room. 

His  brother  patted  me  on  the  shoulder.  "Come,"  he  said, 
**it  won't  hurt.  Think  of  all  the  nice  things  you'll  get  and 
I'll  add  to  them.     There,  that's  it.     There!" 

The  tooth  was  out.  It  hadn't  hurt  a  bit.  And  then  with 
a  beaming  face  I  took  grandmother's  hand  and  trudged  up 
town  to  make  her  fulfil   her  promises. 

Write  an  account  of  something  that  has  actually  happened 
to  you,  an  experience  called  to  mind  by  one  of  the  compositions 
you  have  just  read  or  by  one  of  the  following  titles.  Before  be- 
ginning,  read  the  paragraph  which  follows  the  list  of  titles. 

1.    My    first    day    in    school.     2.    My  first  fish.     3. 

My  first  serious  accident.  4.  A  long  remembered  punish- 
ment. 5.  My  first  night  in  a  tent.  6.  My  first  business 
venture.  7.  The  time  I  ran  away.  8.  "When  father  took  me 
along.  9.  My  first  attempt  at  driving  an  automobile.  10. 
My  first  day  behind  the  counter.  11.  My  first  party.  1*2. 
Taking  the  cook's  place  for  a  whole  day.  13.  My  first  night 
away  from  home.  14.  Terribly  frightened.  15.  Speaking 
my  first  "piece."  16.  Lost.  17.  My  first  fight.  18.  An 
early  shopping  expedition.  19.  The  day  I  broke  the  window- 
pane. 

A  little  child,  lost  in  the  crowd,  may  not  take  more  than 
a  hundred  steps  before  she  is  found  by  her  mother.  Com- 
pared with  her  emotions  of  fear  and  grief,  the  few  steps 
form  an  insignificant  part  of  the  adventure.     A  home  run 


TRUE  NARRATIVES  53 

as  it  appears  to  the  crowd  in  the  grandstand  is  not  the 
vital  thing  to  the  player  who  makes  it,  but  rather  the 
emotions  he  experiences  as  he  dashes  from  base  to  base. 
When  not  talking  with  others,  we  are  silently  talking  to 
ourselves  —  thinking  things  over,  we  call  it,  or  meditating, 
day  dreaming,  worrying,  etc.  Do  not  forget,  when  telling 
of  some  little  experience  of  yours,  to  include  your  emotions, 
your  secret  "inside"  conversation. 

EXERCISE  6 

Tell  orally,  in  a  simple  way,  of  a  little  comedy  or  tragedy  in 
which  you  have  played  a  part.  Below  is  a  list  of  titles  that 
may  help  you  to  decide  which  of  your  many  adventures  to  tell. 

1.  Forgot  my  ticket.  2.  While  mother  was  away.  3.  That 
unprepared  recitation.  4.  Attempting  to  earn  money  by 
following  the  directions  in  an  advertisement.  5.  How  I  almost 
caught  the  fox.  6.  Landing  a  big  fish.  7.  Forgot  my  piece. 
8.  An  untimely  rip.  9.  When  company  came  unexpectedly 
to  tea.  10.  Served  me  right.  11.  Outwitted.  12.  Reduced 
to  twenty  cents.  13.  Ten  minutes  before  the  bell  rang.  14. 
Didn't  know  it  was  loaded.  15.  A  case  of  mistaken  identity. 
16.  More  scared  than  hurt.  17.  Befriending  a  stranger. 
18.  My  inglorious  Fourth.  19.  A  pleasant  surprise.  20. 
A  surprise  party  that  failed.  21.  Three  minutes  to  play,  and 
three  yards  to  gain.  22.  Almost  a  tragedy.  23.  Locked  out. 
24.    A  clear  case  of  truancy.     25.    The  tables  turned. 

Remember  that  it  is  not  at  all  disagreeable  to  be  laughed 
at  if  you  laugh  too,  joining  in  heartily,  especially  if  it  is  you 
who  start  the  laughter.  So  hold  back  nothing;  tell  the 
whole  story.  The  whole  story,  of  course,  includes  not  only 
what  you  did,  but  your  hidden  emotions  as  well.  On  the 
other  hand,  do  not  exaggerate  for  the  purpose  of  making 
some  experience  seem  more  comic  or  more  tragic  than  it 
really  was.     Tell  the  truth. 


54  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

EXERCISE  6 

Write  a  short  composition  similar  to  the  one  called  for  in 
Exercise  4,  this  time  telling  of  what  happened  not  to  you  but  to 
some  one  else,  perhaps  a  brother  or  a  playmate.  If  possible, 
select  an  incident  that  you  have  witnessed. 

Although,  as  has  been  mentioned,  we  all  carry  on  secret 
conversations  with  ourselves,  concealing  emotions,  we  are 
not  always  successful  in  hiding  our  feelings.  The  "faces'* 
we  make,  the  little  bodily  actions  of  which  we  are  uncon- 
scious, no  less  than  the  words  we  speak  and  the  manner  in 
which  they  are  spoken,  betray  us,  especially  when  off  our 
guard.  If  you  have  read  Dickens's  Tale  of  Two  Cities^  you 
will  recall  that  Jerry  Cruncher,  on  a  certain  occasion  when 
he  was  confronted  with  guilt,  "changed  the  leg  on  which 
he  rested,  as  often  as  if  he  had  fifty  of  those  limbs,  and  were 
trying  them  all;  he  examined  his  fingernails  with  a  very 
questionable  closeness  of  attention;  and  whenever  Mr. 
Lorry's  eye  caught  his,  he  was  taken  with  that  peculiar 
kind  of  short  cough  requiring  the  hollow  of  a  hand  before  it, 
which  is  seldom,  if  ever,  known  to  be  an  infirmity  attendant 
on  perfect  openness  of  character."  You  need  not  wait  till 
you  become  a  novelist  before  taking  note  of  such  telltale 
matters;  they  form  a  part  of  every  good  narrative.  You 
mention  them  freely  in  your  recess  hour  exchange  of  news 
and  gossip.  Do  not  exclude  them  when  you  write  a  school 
composition. 

EXERCISE  7 

Write  a  composition  entitled  A  Day  of  My  Life. 

A  schoolboy,  asked  to  give  an  account  of  what  he  had 
done  on  the  preceding  Saturday,  or  on  Sunday  if  Sunday 
had  been  more  eventful,  handed  in  the  following  composi- 
tion: "Last  Saturday  I  was  sick  a-bed.  Sunday  I  did  the 
same."  That  was  all,  and,  under  the  circumstances,  quite 
enough.     But,  please,  do  not  pick  out  a  sick  a-bed  day. 


TRUE  NARRATIVES  55 

Take  one  of  average  interest.  Let  your  record  be  a  per- 
fectly plain  one,  not  **  dressed  up."  The  account  should 
contain  a  httle  more  than  you  would  naturally  record  in  a 
diary,  but  nothing  that  every  one  takes  for  granted,  like 
washing  face  and  hands  on  getting  up  in  the  morning.  Two 
hundred  words  ought  to  be  suflficient,  unless  the  day  was 
"one  long  to  be  remembered." 

Which  is  the  better  expression,  two  boys  and  myself,  or 
three  of  us  boys?  Is  it  polite  to  say  /  and  my  friend?  Is  it 
better  to  say  another  fellow  and  I  or  Tom  Jones  and  I?  It 
will  be  well  to  decide  these  matters  before  beginning  to  write. 

EXERCISE  8 

It  was  hinted  in  the  preceding  exercise  that  matters  every 
one  takes  for  granted  without  being  told  should  be  omitted. 
They  simply  delay  the  narrative,  which  should  keep  moving 
on.  Particularly  is  this  true  in  accounts  of  trips,  excursions, 
entertainments,  and  "good  times"  in  general.  And  it  is 
well  to  hurry  over  the  less  interesting  details,  such  as  the 
time-table  arrangements  —  what  car  line  you  took,  when 
you  left  home,  at  what  hour  you  reached  the  picnic  grove, 
etc.  Usually  the  important  part  of  a  picnic  narrative  is 
the  picnic  itself,  not  the  going  and  coming,  though  condi- 
tions can  be  imagined  that  would  make  the  going  or  the 
coming  overshadow  in  importance  everything  that  takes 
place  in  the  grove.  But  this  is  the  point:  When  the  really 
important  part  is  reached,  you  can  hardly  overdo  the  matter 
of  going  into  details.  Little  descriptive  touches,  little  ex- 
planations, whatever  helps  the  imagination  to  see  things 
and  enter  into  the  fun,  should  be  freely  employed. 

Give  orally  a  jive-minute  account  {not  imaginary)  suggested 
by  one  of  the  following  titles: 

1.  A  little  journey.  2.  A  Saturday  expedition.  3.  My 
summer   on   a   farm.      4.    A   fishing    trip.      5.    A   trolley   trip. 


56  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

6.  After  rabbits.  7.  At  the  picnic.  8.  A  church  entertain- 
ment.     9.    A  meeting  of  the  society.     10.    Getting 

up  a  show.  11.  Exploring.  12.  Clerking  it.  13.  Selling 
bonds.  14.  A .  championship  game.  15.  A  night  in  camp. 
16.  A  day  in  the  woods.  17.  A  house  party.  18.  Clamming. 
19.    A  rainy  Saturday.    20.    A  day  that  was  really  worth  while. 

EXERCISE  9 

Here  is  a  composition  written  after  a  fishing  trip.  How 
does  it  begin.?  Not  by  telling  that  the  possibility  of  making 
a  trip  was  first  talked  over  and  that  plans  were  finally  settled 
upon;  nor  with  an  account  of  the  journey  to  the  pond,  the 
engaging  of  a  boat,  and  the  long  wait.  It  begins  at  the  point 
where  something  of  tremendous  interest  happens,  a  "strike.'* 
The  trip  may  have  lasted  a  day  or  a  week.  The  only  part 
really  worth  telling  about  was  the  ten  minutes  or  so  occupied 
by  the  combat  between  the  boy  and  the  fish.  How  does 
the  composition  end.'^  Not  with  an  account  of  the  journey 
home,  not  even  with  a  detailed  account  of  the  boy's  emo- 
tions, which  can  be  easily  imagined,  but  with  a  "silver  flash" 
announcing  that  the  contest  is  over,  the  game  lost  and  won. 

A  Contest  with  a  Salmon  Trout 

**B-R-R-R,  hr-r-r,  br-r-r;'  sounded  the  reel.  '' Br-r-r,  br, 
br-r-r-r."  I  awoke  from  my  half  unconsciousness  with  a  start. 
Dropping  the  oars,  I  grabbed  my  rod.  I  started  reeling  in, 
but  I  felt  nothing.  There  was  a  second  when  I  thought  I  had 
lost  it,  then,  about  a  hundred  yards  back,  I  saw  the  gigantic 
form  of  a  salmon  trout  come  out  of  the  water,  shake  itself,  and 
fall  back  with  a  loud  splash. 

Of  course  I  was  excited,  for  I  then  experienced  the  feeling 
which  comes  to  every  fisherman  when  he  has  a  big  fish  on  his 
line,  the  feeling  which  is  so  difficult  to  describe.  My  hands 
trembled.  I  began  to  reel  in  as  fast  as  I  could.  Suddenly 
the  line  stopped  with  a  jerk,  and  in  spite  of  all  I  could  do  the 


TRUE  NARRATIVES  57 

reel  began  to  turn  backwards.  When  the  line  had  gone  out 
until  twenty,  fifteen,  and  at  last  but  ten  yards  remained, 
I  endeavored  to  snub  it  by  putting  my  hand  over  the  reel. 
As  I  did  this,  the  reel,  which  had  become  looser  every  minute, 
fell  from  the  rod  to  the  bottom  of  the  boat. 

Luck  was  in  my  favor,  however,  for  the  fish  stopped  its  mad 
rush  before  the  line  was  completely  run  out.  I  gathered  up 
the  reel  and  replaced  it  on  the  rod  as  quickly  as  possible,  fearing 
that  if  I  gave  the  fish  too  much  slack  it  would  break  away. 
Another  rush  followed  the  first,  but  was  in  the  opposite  direction, 
coming  toward  the  boat.  As  the  trout  came  nearer,  it  went  deeper 
into  the  lake,  and  as  the  water  was  not  very  deep  at  this  point,  I 
pulled  on  the  line  gradually  and  steadily.  When  I  had  succeeded 
in  getting  it  near  enough  to  see  its  immense  body,  it  made  a  third 
attempt  to  gain  liberty. 

My  right  hand  ached  with  the  strain  which  had  been  put 
upon  it.  Finally,  after  many  more  dashes,  both  long  and 
short,  the  fish  began  to  give  in  to  what  it  knew  to  be  the  greater 
power.  It  pulled  on  my  line  like  a  dead  weight,  now  and  then 
making  feeble  yanks.  After  I  had  got  it  within  a  few  yards 
of  the  boat,  I  dropped  the  rod  and,  taking  the  net,  slowly 
attempted  to  dip  it. 

The  movement  of  the  net  frightened  the  trout  into  making 
a  last  final  dash.  In  grabbing  for  the  net  I  had  dropped  the 
rod,  so  that  the  handle  of  the  reel  was  not  free  to  move.  As 
it  was  suddenly  snubbed,  the  bait  slipped  from  its  mouth. 
However,  the  fish  did  not  seem  to  realize  that  it  had  gained  its 
liberty,  but  floated  upward  until  within  a  foot  of  the  surface 
and  about  a  yard  from  the  boat. 

I  was  fascinated  by  its  size  and  beauty.  It  was  about  two 
feet  long,  its  silver  body  dotted  here  and  there  with  bright  red 
spots.  Evidently  the  fish  was  somewhat  dazed,  and  nearly  ex- 
hausted by  the  long  struggle.  Its  gills  moved  lazily  as  if  it 
were  completely  tired  out. 

Could  I  allow  this  prize  which  was  within  three  feet  of  me  to 
escape?  Could  there  not  be  a  way  for  me  to  capture  it.?^  I 
remembered  how,  a  few  days  before,  I  had  seen  a  large  black 
bass  successfully  jigged.     Could  I  not  get  this  one  with  the 


58  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

net?    I  took  the  net  and  lowered  it,  but  before  it  touched  the 
water  there  was  a  silver  flash.     The  trout  had  won. 

Here  is  a  second  composition  in  which  the  action  de- 
scribed is  confined  to  a  very  few  minutes.  The  writer's 
purpose  was  to  crowd  into  a  single  paragraph  an  account  of 
an  exciting  moment  in  a  ball  game.  Is  the  composition  a 
success?  What  in  particular  do  you  like?  What,  if  any- 
thing, do  you  find  to  criticize?     Could  you  do  better? 

Safe! 

At  that  moment  Pete  knocked  out  what  proved  to  be  a 
three-bagger.  Away  towards  right  field  shot  the  ball  and 
Pete  streaked  off  for  first  base.  The  north-end  bleachers 
suddenly  sprang  into  life;  a  surge  of  blue  and  white  waved 
over  the  stand.  The  umpire  raced  with  long  strides  to  get 
a  better  view.  *' Lefty,"  the  un vanquished  pitcher,  eyed  hi? 
catcher  with  a  discouraged  smile.  On  the  players'  bench 
appeared  a  mix-up  of  legs  and  arms  as  Pete's  team-mates  hugged 
each  other  and  cheered  him  on.  Far  out  in  right  field  a  red- 
stockinged  player  was  making  a  two-four  clip  after  the  ball, 
while  the  cheerers  for  the  red  sat  in  strained  silence.  Pete 
slid  into  first  base  in  a  cloud  of  dust  and,  picking  himself  up, 
started  his  two  hundred  pounds  towards  second.  Over  the 
farthest  corner  of  the  fence  tumbled  the  pursuing  fielder.  Up 
in  the  air  arched  the  ball,  and  the  center  fielder  in  a  flurry 
muffed  it.  Cheers  from  the  north  and  groans  and  cries  from 
the  south!  In  shot  the  ball  to  second  as  Pete  rounded  that 
base  for  third.  Straight  after  him  came  the  ball  while  he  ran 
as  if  chased  by  something  much  more  dangerous  than  a  mere 
sphere  of  leather.  A  cloud  of  dust  enveloped  third  base; 
all  waited  for  the  umpire's  decision.  And  then  through  the 
growing  murmur  rang  the  word  "Safe!" 

Write  a  short  compositioUy  patterned  after  one  of  the  two 
you  have  just  read,  to  which  you  can  give  tlie  title  An  Exciting 
Moment. 


TRUE  NARRATIVES  59 

Do  not  waste  time  in  giving  unnecessary  explanation,  but 
come  quickly  to  the  exciting  part.  Try  hard,  by  slipping 
in  a  color  or  sound  word  here  and  there,  to  help  the  reader's 
imagination.  Experiment  with  the  short  sentence,  using 
it  to  indicate  that  much  is  happening  quickly.  Finally, 
the  exciting  moment  having  been  described,  close  abruptly. 

EXERCISE  10 

Select  from  an  account  you  prepared  in  one  of  the  earlier 
exercises  in  this  Course  a  single  incident  occupying  half  an 
hour,  fifteen  minutes,  ten,  or  five  even,  and  cover  it  in  detail. 
Let  there  be  no  introduction,  no  conclusion,  hut  just  the  inci- 
dent itself.  If  you  prefer,  you  may  tell  an  entirely  new  story, 
some  little  happening  chosen  from  a  ''red  letter'^  occasion. 
Whichever  you  decide  to  do,  narrow  things  down  to  the  really 
exciting  moment. 

Composition  tasks  in  this  Course  and  the  preceding  one 
come  under  the  head  of  what  is  called  Narration,  the  form 
of  expression  employed  in  giving  an  orderly  report  of  action. 
A  story  is  a  narrative.  An  orderly  account  of  what  you  did 
last  Saturday  would  be  a  narrative.  Any  composition,  long 
or  short,  presenting  in  an  orderly  manner  the  particulars  of 
an  event  or  a  series  of  events,  is  a  narrative. 

A  narrative  may  include  much  that  is  purely  explanatory. 
You  not  only  tell,  for  example,  that  you  pitched  your  tent 
in  a  certain  place,  but  explain  why  you  chose  that  spot 
rather  than  some  other.  A  narrative  commonly  contains 
not  a  little  that  is  pure  description.  You  wish  to  tell  not 
only  that  you  pitched  your  tent,  and  why  you  pitched  it 
where  you  did,  but  how  it  looked  after  the  last  peg  was 
driven  and  the  last  rope  made  taut;  so  you  give  a  word- 
picture  of  it,  looking  so  white  and  so  tiny  against  the  back- 
ground of  tall  pines,  with  the  little  clearing  in  front  leading 


60  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

down  to  the  lake.  The  narrative  may  contain  even  more; 
it  may  record  emotions,  as  the  feehng  of  pride  and  soHd 
satisfaction  you  experienced  when  the  tent  was  finally  ready 
for  occupancy.  A  complete  narrative,  then,  may  be  quite 
a  complicated  affair  into  which  enter  many  elements. 

Here  is  a  composition  gathering  up  and  restating  the  bits 
of  advice  given  in  connection  with  the  preceding  exercises. 

Putting  Life  into  Narration 

1.  Skip. 

Skip  the  long  introduction.  A  few  words  of  explanation 
may  be  necessary  at  the  outset,  but  waste  no  time.  Take 
warning  of  Miltiades  Peterkin  Paul,  who,  setting  out  to  jump 
across  the  brook,  went  so  far  back  for  a  good  long  run,  by  way 
of  getting  a  start,  that  he  had  to  stop  and  rest  before  he  reached 
the  bank.  Skip  the  little  things  which  everybody  takes  for 
granted.  They  will  never  be  missed.  Skip  the  long  con- 
clusion. When  the  narrative  proper  is  ended,  stop.  You're 
through. 

2.  Pick. 

In  nearly  every  narrative  it  is  necessary.  There  is  not  time 
to  include  everything;  you  must  pick,  choose,  weigh  the  impor- 
tance of  things.  Some  items,  though  deserving  mention,  should 
be  disposed  of  quickly.  A  chimney  is  but  a  chimney;  it  should 
not  be  made  as  big  as  all  the  rest  of  the  house.  Slip  along, 
then;  pick  out  the  important  things  and  get  at  them  as  quickly 
as  possible. 

3.  Picture. 

From  start  to  finish,  but  especially  when  dealing  with  the 
important  parts  of  the  narrative,  be  lavish  with  pictures. 
Help  the  imagination,  through  an  abundance  of  details,  to  see. 
We  had  a  lively  time  on  the  way  back  may  call  up  in  the  mind  of 
the  one  who  makes  the  statement  twenty  things  that  made  the 
return  a  lively  one;  but  how  little  it  helps  anybody  else!  Picture 
through  explanation.  Picture  emotions.  The  hidden  or  half  re- 
vealed feelings  are  the  most  important  part  of  most  happenings. 


TRUE  NARRATIVES  61 

4.  Be  true. 

Get  things  right.  Train  the  eyes  and  the  other  senses  to  be 
accurate.  Train  the  memory  to  retain  what  the  senses  present. 
Keep  your  impressions  fresh;  do  not  let  them  fade  away. 
Be  sure  that  your  words  do  not  misrepresent;  say  what  you 
mean.  Be  true  in  another  way.  Barring  slang  and  the  gram- 
matical errors  which  may  creep  into  your  speech  in  careless 
moments,  employ  the  language  of  your  every-day  talk.  Be 
your  natural  self. 

Note.     Fox  additional  exercises  in  narration,  see  Course  IX. 


DRILL  t:XERCISES 

WORD  GAMES 


There  are  many  word  games.  One  of  the  simplest  is 
played  as  follows:  A  word  is  selected,  let  us  say  temperature. 
Ten  minutes  is  given  in  which  to  form  new  terms  from  it, 
no  letter  to  be  used  more  times  than  it  appears  in  the  given 
word.  Thus  from  temperature  may  be  formed  temper,  at, 
tar,  raty  part,  etc.  Plurals  and  proper  nouns  are  not  to  be 
used.  Each  word  counts  one.  A  word  misspelled  counts 
off  four. 

A  tvord  having  been  selected,  play  the  game.  Then  let  each 
pupil  arrange  his  list  alphabetically  and  hand  it  to  a  class- 
mate for  criticism. 

2 

Here  is  a  speed  contest.  The  instructor  will  select  ten  words. 
With  dictionaries  before  you,  find  the  words  as  quickly  as  pos- 
sible, as  each  is  given  out.  Stand  and  give  the  first  meaning 
of  the  word  as  soon  as  you  have  found  it. 

SPELLING 

1 

This  exercise  calls  attention  to  ten  troublesome  pairs. 
They  are  common  pests.  Possibly  you  have  already  mastered 
all  but  one  or  two  of  them.     If  so,  master  the  one  or  two. 

threw  through  Surely  you  know  the  difference  between 
these   simple  words.     Is  it  purely  by  accident  that  you 


DRILL   EXERCISES  63 

sometimes  write  Jim  through  the  hall  to  first  base?  Let  there 
be  no  more  such  accidents. 

to  too  It  is  pure  carelessness,  is  it  not,  that  causes  you 
to  write,  occasionally,  to  had  instead  of  too  had?  Then 
stop  being  careless.  An  error  is  an  error,  no  matter  what 
causes  it. 

woman  women  Look  carefully  at  these  familiar  words. 
One  is  singular,  the  other  plural,  like  man  and  Tuen.  Do  not 
ever  again  write  A  women's  glove  was  found. 

cloths  clothes  The  dry  goods  stores  sell  cloths  of  many 
kinds.     The  maid  uses  dish-cloths.    We  all  wear  clothes. 

their  there  Their  is  a  possessive.  The  two  words  are  cor- 
rectly used  in  this  sentence :  There  were  a  few  who  left  their 
friends  over  there. 

lead  led  Lead,  the  present  tense  form  of  the  verb,  rhymes 
with  agreed;  led  rhymes  with  hed. 

They  all  agreed  to  let  Tom  lead. 
He  straightway  led  them  all  to  bed. 

forth  fourth  Fourth  is  a  numeral.  The  colonel  led  forth 
his  troops  for  the  fourth  time.  The  abbreviation  etc.  means 
and  so  forth. 

coarse  course  Coarse  is  the  opposite  of  fine,  of  course. 
We  enjoy  a  iour-course  dinner;  we  visit  the  race-course. 
All  pupils  take  an  English  course. 

loose  lose  Loose  rhymes  with  goose;  it  means  the  opposite 
of  fastened  or  secured.  Lose  rhymes  with  twos.  The  past 
tense  of  lose  is  lost.  Notice  that  both  lose  and  lost  are  spelled 
with  one  o.  Possibly  the  following  jingle  will  help  you  to 
remember; 

The  old  white  goose, 
They  say,  is  loose. 
By  ones  and  twos 
Our  geese  we  lose. 


64  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

breath  breathe    Our  breath  comes  and  goes  as  we  breathe. 

Writey  as  the  teacher  pronounces  the  words  to  which  aUen- 
tion  has  been  called,  sentences  in  which  they  are  correctly  used. 


Here  are  nine  more  troublesome  pairs.  Are  you  sure  that 
you  have  mastered  them? 

seams  seems  Seams  is  a  noun,  seems  a  verb.  The  seams, 
it  seems,  were  not  securely  sewed. 

bare  bear  Bare  means  uncovered.  To  bear  is  to  carry. 
The  polar  bear  bears  a  heavy  coat.     Let's  go  barefoot. 

grease  Greece  What  a  serious  error  to  confuse  animal  fat 
and  an  ancient  country! 

angel  angle  When  placed  side  by  side,  these  words  are 
simple  enough.  Study  the  endings  —  gel,  gle.  Pronounce 
each  twenty  times.     Write  them.     Master  them! 

leave  lief  Lief  is  employed  in  such  sentences  as  Fd  just 
as  lief.  It  means  willingly.  It  is  incorrect  to  say  Fd  just 
as  leave  go.  It  is  correct  to  say  Fd  just  as  lief  go,  or  Fd 
just  as  soon  go.  Leave  is  also  confused  with  let.  Leave 
him  alone  and  Let  him  alone  do  not  mean  the  same  thing. 
What  is  the  difference  in  meaning? 

almost  already  also  always 

all  most  all  ready  all  so        all  ways 

T^otice  that  each  word  in  the  top  line  begins  not  with  all 
but  with  al.    Study  these  sentences: 

AU  most  willingly  contributed  and  almost  emptied  their  purses. 
Are  you  all  ready?    The  signal  has  already  been  given. 
They  were  all  so  insistent  that  Peter  was  allowed  to  go  also. 
All  ways  of  doing  the  example  were  always  explained. 

Write,  as  the  teacher  pronounces  the  words  to  which  attention 
has  been  called,  sentences  in  which  they  are  correctly  used. 


DRILL  EXERCISES  66 


Write  from  dictation  the  following  sentences: 

1.  Their  commander  had  already  led  them  forth  when 
news  came  that  pepce  had  been  declared.  2.  Are  you  all 
ready?  Then  please  remember  that  the  broth  is  always  spoiled 
by  too  many  cooks;  and  don't  forget  to  grease  the  tins.  3. 
The  angel  almost  smiled  and  said  the  woman's  name  was 
Caroline.  4.  She  lives  in  Athens,  Greece.  5.  It  was  also 
difficult  to  breathe;  I  thought  I  should  surely  lose  my  breath. 
6.  Tents,  provisions,  and  so  forth  were  abandoned;  even 
then  we  barely  escaped  the  bear.  7.  He  made  his  clothes 
from  pieces  of  coarse  cloth,  and  the  seams  were  unusually 
wide,  if  the  bare  truth  must  be  told.  8.  I'd  as  lief  not  go 
if  we  must  leave  him  behind.  9.  What  is  the  difference  in 
meaning  between  Leave  me  alone  and  Let  me  alone?  10.  Almost 
always  we  had  cake  also,  and  pickles  too. 


PUNCTUATION 

Rule. — Double  quotation  marks  are  used  to  inclose  a  direct 
quotation. 

This  is  the  general  rule,  related  to  which  are  a  number  of 
others  which  call  for  careful  attention. 

1.  The  words  included  within  the  marks  must  be  the  ex- 
a<jt  words  of  the  person  quoted.  It  is  incorrect  to  write 
He  said  *'that  he  would  come  tomorrow.'^  Either  the  marks 
should  be  removed  or  the  sentence  changed  to  read  He  said, 
"Z  will  come  tomorrow  ^ 

2.  When  a  quoted  sentence  is  interrupted  by  a  parentheti- 
cal expression  like  said  he,  two  pairs  of  marks  are  needed, 
one  pair  for  each  part.  For  example:  ^' This^^  said  Ae,  ''is 
TYiost  favorable  news'*  Note  that  the  comma  following  This 
comes  before  the  quotation  marks.  Note  also  that  is  does 
not  begin  with  a  capital  letter. 


66  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

3.  If  a  quotation  contains  two  or  more  sentences,  the 
marks  are  placed  before  the  first  and  after  the  last  —  one 
pair  only  for  the  entire  quotation,  unless  it  is  broken  by  such 
a  parenthetical  expression  as  said  he.  If  the  quoted  matter 
is  in  two  or  three  paragraphs,  the  marks  are  placed  before 
the  first  word  in  each  paragraph  and  after  the  last  word  in 
the  last  paragraph.  Thus  in  a  quotation  containing  three 
paragraphs  the  marks  are  used  four  times  —  before  each  of 
the  three  paragraphs  and  after  the  last. 

4.  Single  marks  are  used  to  set  off  a  quotation  within  a 
quotation. 

**  I  think,"  he  faltered,  **  that  Tom  said,  *  Take  the  right-hand 
road,'  but  I  am  not  sure." 

5.  Ordinarily  a  comma  is  placed  between  a  quotation 
and  the  words  introducing  it;  but  if  the  quoted  passage  is 
long,  or  is  preceded  by  as  follows  or  some  similar  expression, 
the  colon  is  used. 

The  porter  replied,  "  The  charge  will  be  a  dime,  madam." 
The  sign  read  as  follows:  "Fishing  strictly  forbidden." 

6.  Quotation  marks  are  used  to  inclose  the  title  of  a  book. 
No  comma  is  placed  before  the  title. 

(Wrong)  The  title  of  the  book  is,  "  The  Soul  of  the  War." 
(Right)  The  title  of  the  book  is  "  The  Soul  of  the  War." 

But  titles  are  indicated  also,  without  quotation  marks,  by 
means  of  italics.  The  common  way  of  indicating  italics, 
when  writing  with  a  pen,  is  to  underline  the  words  to  be 
italicized. 


Punctuate  the  following,  supplying  capitals  where  they  are 
needed. 


DRILL  EXERCISES  67 

1.  A  little  boy  was  asked  how  he  learned  to  skate  oh  by 

getting  up  every  time  I  fell  down  he  replied. 

2.  They  go  to  bed  raw  recruits  he  said  and  wake  up  pro- 

fessionals. 

3.  Would  you  mind  shutting  the  door  she  said/I  don't  like 

those  bombs  coming  in. 

4.  Cultivate  the  habit  of  reading  something  good  for  ten 

minutes  a  day  says  Charles  W.  Eliot  ex-president  of 
Harvard  University  Ten  minutes  a  day  will  in  twenty 
years  make  all  the  difference  between  a  cultivated 
and  an  uncultivated  mind  provided  you  read  what  is 
good /I  mean  by  good  the  proved  treasures  of  the 
world  the  intellectual  treasures  of  the  world  in  story 
verse  history  and  biography. 

5.  He  began  as  follows  ladies  and  gentlemen  which  made 

everybody  laugh  for  there  were  no  ladies  present. 

6.  He  quickly  replied   Mr.   Alexander  gives  me  permission 

to  say  help  yourselves  but  he  makes  this  one  request 
when  you  leave  the  cabin  please  see  that  the  door  is 
locked  and  the  key  returned  to  me. 

7.  A  small  office  boy  who  had  worked  two  years  on  a  salary 

of  three  dollars  per  week  plucked  up  courage  one  day 
to  ask  for  a  raise  his  employer  asked  how  much  he  would 
like  to  have  well  answered  the  lad  I  do  not  think  two 
dollars  a  week  more  would  be  too  much  you  seem  to  me 
a  rather  small  boy  to  be  earning  five  dollars  a  week 
I  suppose  s^'  I  know  I  am  small  for  my  age  but  to  tell 
the  truth  since  I  have  been  here  I  have  not  had  time 
to  grow. 


Criticize  the  following: 

1.  "Where  have  you  been'*?  she  asked.  2.  *'This,"  he 
explained,  *'is  the  assembly  hall."  "Here  the  entire  school 
gathers  every  Tuesday  morning."  3.  He  declared  "that  every 
little  helped."  4.  "I  came,  she  sobbed,  "To  see  the  grand 
procession  pass  and  hear  the  people  shout  long  live  the  king." 
5.    Have  you  ever  read,  "Silas  Marner".''     6.    "Have  you  no 


68  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

more  of  this  kind,  the  gentleman  asked?  7.  We  chose  the 
following  motto;  "Live  and  let  live."  8.  "Come,  come'* 
said  he,  "You're  only  fooling."  9.  "The  train  was  late  in 
starting,'*  he  replied,  we  were  also  detained  an  hour  in  Wor- 
cester." 10.  In  a  gruff  voice  he  asked,  "What  can  I  do  for 
you"? 

8 

Standing  near  the  hlackboard,  give  a  five-minute  talk  on  the 
correct  use  of  quotation  marks.  Illustrate  by  means  of  sen- 
tences written  on  the  board.  You  may  imagine  that  the  teacher 
is  absent  and  that  you  are  taking  his  place. 


COURSE   III 

COMPOSITION 

Letters 

The  parts  of  a  letter 
The  study  of  models 
Tasks  in  letter  writing 

DRILL 

Word  Derivation 

Pronunciation 

Final  g  and  other  slighted  consonants 
Ath  el  etics  and  similar  mispronunciations 

Spelling 

Words  containing  ei  or  ie 
Silent  e  before  a  suffix 

Punctuation 

Commas  to  set  off  parenthetical  elements 
Comma  to  set  off  a  dependent  element  at  the  beginning 
of  a  sentence 


LETTERS 

It  is  estimated  that  in  1918  the  American  people  were 
writing  letters  at  the  rate  of  forty  millions  a  day.  Many 
of  these  were  business  letters.  There  are  mail-order  houses 
—  that  is,  concerns  which  sell  goods  solely  by  mail  —  whose 
sales  amount  annually  to  over  a  hundred  million  dollars  a 
year,  each  sale  calling  for  two  or  three  letters.  But  a  large 
number  of  the  letters  delivered  daily  by  the  postman  are 
social,  between  friends  or  relatives.  They  have  to  do  with 
business  in  a  small  way  only.  It  is  letters  of  this  kind  that 
you  are  accustomed  to  write  and  will  continue  to  write  for 
years  to  come,  unless  at  an  unusually  early  age  you  **go 
into  business."  This  chapter  is  devoted  to  your  kind  of 
letter  writing  almost  entirely. 

A  letter  is  a  message.  It  contains  what  you  would  say 
if,  instead  of  writing,  you  could  speak  directly  to  the  person 
for  whom  the  message  is  intended.  It  is  simply  talk  written 
down.  It  is  a  composition.  If  you  can  write  a  good  com- 
position, you  should  be  able  to  write  a  good  letter.  But  if 
you  examine  a  letter,  for  example  one  of  those  found  in  this 
Course,  you  will  be  reminded  that  a  letter  contains  more 
than  merely  a  message.  There  are  a  few  items  of  informa- 
tion: who  wrote  the  letter,  when,  where,  and  to  whom. 
There  are  also  little  courtesies,  corresponding  to  the  Good 
morning  and  the  Good  bye  employed  when  we  meet  friends 
and  when  we  part  with  them.  Although  the  message  is 
the  principal  thing,  these  other  matters  are  important  too. 
We  shall  consider  first  of  all,  therefore,  the  good  manners, 

71 


72  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

the  etiquette,  the  conventions,  as  they  are  called,  of  letter 
writing,  doing  so  mainly  through  the  study  of  models. 

We  will  begin  with  a  friendly  letter  such  as  a  boy  of  four- 
teen or  fifteen  might  write.  Since  boys  of  that  age  do  not 
always  have  stationery  of  their  own,  we  shall  imagine  that 
he  has  borrowed  from  his  father,  not  the  kind  he  uses  in 
his  ofiice,  but  his  home  supply  for  general  correspondence. 
It  is  white,  of  good  quality,  and  unruled.  Model  1  pictures 
the  envelope  as  it  appeared  when  ready  for  mailing.     The 


ao3  Sii|OiAH;yUuL4 

C«r»v»v  . 

t^. 

2.37*Rockou^  at. 
Wo^ceitU. 

Model  1 

envelope's  dimensions,  you  may  imagine,  are  3§  X  6  inches. 
You  are  invited  to  forget  that  the  penmanship  is  not  boyish. 
Please  imagine,  too,  that  a  stamp  has  been  neatly  affixed  in 
the  right-hand  upper  corner,  not  diagonally  nor  upside  down, 
and  that  before  addressing  the  envelope  the  wTiter  was 
careful  to  see  that  it  was  right  side  up. 

That  which  appears  on  the  envelope  is  a  letter  in  itself, 
an  outside  message  to  the  postal  clerk  and  the  letter  carrier. 
This  is  what  it  says:  *'In  return  for  the  two  cents  paid  the 
Government  (you  will  find  the  receipt  in  the  upper  right- 


LETTERS  73 

hand  corner),  kindly  deliver  this  letter  to  Mr.  Edward  L. 
Vanderbilt,  who  lives  at  237  Rockaway  St.  in  Worcester, 
Mass.  Should  you  fail  to  find  him,  return  the  letter  to 
203  Sigourney  St.  in  Hartford,  Conn."  But  to  save  time, 
merely  the  necessary  items  of  information  are  given.  Note 
the  position  of  these  items.  If  the  envelope  were  divided 
into  halves,  an  upper  and  a  lower,  would  the  Superscription, 
as  the  name  of  the  person  and  his  address  are  called,  be  en- 
tirely in  the  lower  half?  Divide  the  envelope  the  other  way, 
right  and  left,  and  what  do  you  find.^  Note  the  diagonal 
arrangement  of  both  the  Superscription  and  the  Return 
Address.  Study  the  punctuation:  periods  following  ab- 
breviations only,  and  the  comma  employed  only  when  two 
items  appear  on  the  same  line.  Would  more  punctuation 
add  clearness,  or  be  simply  a  waste  of  ink?  Finally,  has 
the  message  on  the  envelope  a  neat  appearance,  as  if  the 
writer  were  sufficiently  well  bred  to  care  how  it  looked? 

Now  examine  the  letter.  It  is  written  on  unruled  paper 
matching  the  envelope,  a  folded  or  double  sheet  a  little 
wider  than  the  page  of  this  book  and  perhaps  an  inch  longer. 
Take  a  sheet  of  commercial  letter  paper,  the  size  commonly 
used  in  business  correspondence  (8 J  X  11),  fold  it  once, 
and  you  will  have  the  exact  size.  You  must  imagine  that 
before  placing  it  in  the  envelope  the  writer  folded  the 
letter-sheet  twice,  the  creases  dividing  the  page  into  three 
parts. 

What  are  some  of  the  first  things  noticeable?  Probably 
that  it  is  plainly,  neatly  written,  and  that  nothing  is  crowded. 
The  margin  at  the  left  is  carefully  preserved.  There  is  a 
margin  at  the  right  also,  but  not  so  well  preserved.  Still, 
no  line-end  crowds  to  the  edge  of  the  sheet. 

Study  the  Heading,  as  it  is  called,  in  the  upper  right-hand 
corner.  It  has  the  same  diagonal  arrangement  as  the 
Superscription.     Is  the  punctuation  the  same?     What  is  the 


74  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 


Zo3     oi^u»\*ii,v%Mxi    St. 

^-o/v*..  3o.  m  1 


iJt      UroJi   /tilfOvX    ^V^^      UveiuL6      Ua.     UlM^'tli,,  Untiv  lOM^ , 
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Model  2 


LETTERS  75 

purpose  of  the  Heading?     In  what  order  are  the  items  of 
information  given? 

There  are  but  three  things  to  be  noted  concerning  the 
Salutation,  the  Une  containing  the  name  of  the  person  ad- 
dressed. First,  it  is  two  or  three  spaces  below  the  Heading. 
Second,  it  begins  not  at  the  edge  of  the  sheet  but  at  the 
margin  preserved  in  the  letter  proper.  Third,  it  is  followed 
by  a  colon. 

The  message  of  the  letter  does  not  concern  us  at  present; 
but  observe  carefully  that  the  first  line  of  the  Body  of  the 
letter,  as  it  is  called,  begins  under  the  colon  which  follows 
the  Salutation,  and  that  indentions  show  where  new  para- 
graphs begin,  as  in  other  compositions.  Following  the  Body 
of  the  letter  come  the  polite  Leave-taking  and  the  writer's 
Signature.  What  do  you  note  concerning  their  position? 
What  do  you  note  concerning  the  punctuation  and  the  use 
of  capitals? 

EXERCISE   1 

Without  referring  to  the  hooh^  tell  everything  you  can  about 
Harold's  letter  to  Mr.  Vanderbilt.  That  is,  explain  in  detail 
what  you  have  observed  concerning  the  Superscription,  the  Re- 
turn Address,  the  Heading,  the  Salutation,  the  Body  of  the 
letter,  the  Leave-taking,  and  the  Signature.  Call  attention  to 
anything  in  Models  1  and  2  which  you  think  is  not  as  it 
should  be. 

Model  3  shows  a  letter  in  which  new  features  appear. 
Part  of  the  Heading  is  printed,  a  common  practice.  The 
date,  therefore,  stands  by  itself.  Note  its  position.  A  more 
striking  feature  is  the  Inside  Address,  as  it  is  called,  dupli- 
cating the  address  found  on  the  envelope.  It  is  commonly 
used  except  in  letters  and  notes  between  close  friends  and 
between  relatives.  Note  the  oblique  arrangement,  the  first 
fine  beginning  at  the  margin  of  the  written  page.  That 
the  letter  is  a  little  more  formal  than  the  one  addressed  to 


JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 


903  9IOOURNKY  8TKEET 
HARTFORD.  CONN. 


37  6dt<jevroocL  Sb. 

cnxm.  Sin.: 

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•StiLAJU    >u«ui,  "iM.    lotncu.. 

IjouA^    VLrtu    UuLi 

«S)caUn^  3uLtro6t  3 
Model  3 


LETTERS  77 

Mr.  Vanderbilt  is  suggested  by  the  less  intimate  Salutation. 
Following  the  writer's  signature  is  his  official  title.  Note 
its  position. 

EXERCISE  2 

Draw  on  the  blackboard  a  rectangle  to  represent  a  letter- 
sheet;  then  picture  by  means  of  straight  lines  the  correct  posi- 
tion of  the  parts  of  a  letter  like  Harold's  to  Mr,  Allen. 

Draw  also  a  rectangle  to  represent  an  envelope,  and  picture 
by  means  of  lines  the  position  of  the  Superscription  and  the 
Return  Address, 

Explain  both  diagrams  to  the  class  and  meet  whatever  criti- 
cism may  be  offered. 

The  three  models  examined  thus  far  make  plain  nearly  all 
that  one  needs  to  know  about  the  formalities  of  correspon- 
dence, yet  it  will  be  neccessary  to  study  each  letter-part  a 
little  more  closely,  taking  note  of  permissible  variations  and 
considering  with  care  the  problems  which  trouble  inex- 
perienced letter  writers. 

The  Superscription.  Model  4  shows  a  number  of  ad- 
dressed envelopes,  each  illustrating  something  new.  No  ex- 
planation is  necessary;  a  glance  shows  why  the  model  given 
on  an  earlier  page  has  not  been  followed.  Perhaps  you 
have  seen  envelopes  addressed  in  still  other  ways.  The 
one  thing  to  be  kept  in  mind  is  that  the  message  on  the  en- 
velope should  tell  all  that  the  postal  clerk  and  the  letter 
carrier  need  to  know. 

The  Heading.  In  a  simple  note,  as  to  a  neighbor,  the 
street  and  town  address  might  not  be  necessary.  The 
date  should  never  be  omitted. 

The  Salutation.  It  is  sometimes  puzzling  to  know  what 
salutation  is  best  in  a  given  case.  The  salutations  given  at 
the  top  of  page  79  are  commonly  found  in  letters  so  inti- 
mate that  the  Inside  Address  is  not  used. 


78 


JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 


5-if  T7uA«.t«.ll    St. 


Thc    VAA\Aff»».    (B*&t>/>^  (« 


CoAA   e|    £cL>rBL>ul.    r3.  Sowfa. 


(ie>*aAal^«^ 


■R.T.'&.it 


Model  4 


LETTERS  79 

Dear  Mother:  My  dear  Mr.  Collins: 

Dear  Uncle  Tom:  My  dear  Miss  Collins: 

Dear  cousin  George:  My  dear  Mrs.  Reynolds: 

Dear  Mary :  Dear  Dr.  McKee : 

Dear  Mr.  Collins :  Dear  Professor  Fiske : 

Strangely  enough,  Dear  is  considered  a  more  intimate  salu- 
tation than  My  dear.  Except  when  it  comes  first,  dear 
does  not  begin  with  a  capital  letter.  Uncle,  aunty  father, 
mother,  and  titles  of  respect  do  begin  with  a  capital.  It  is 
better  not  to  abbreviate  a  title,  with  the  exception  of  Mr., 
Mrs.,  and  Dr.  Never  write  Dear  Prof.,  nor  Dear  Professor, 
but  Dear  Professor  Blank.  Here  are  salutations  used  with 
the  Inside  Address.     They  are  less  intimate  in  character. 

Mrs.  William  H.  Taylor  Mrs.  WilHam  H.  Taylor 

1053  Collins  St.  1053  Collins  St. 

Denver,  Col.  Denver,  Col. 

My  dear  Mrs.  Taylor:  Dear  Madam: 

Miss  Mary  L.  Taylor  Miss  Mary  L.  Taylor 

1053  ColUns  St.  1053  Collins  St. 

Denver,  Col.  Denver,  Col. 

My  dear  Miss  Taylor:  Dear  Madam: 

Dear  Sir  and  Dear  Madam  are  more  formal  than  Dear  Mr. 
Blank  and  My  dear  Mrs.  Blank.  Notice  that  Madam  may 
be  used  even  when  the  letter  is  addressed  to  an  unmarried 
woman,  especially  if  the  one  addressed  is  a  stranger;  but 
My  dear  Miss  Blank  is  much  more  commonly  employed. 

EXERCISE   3 

Answer  the  following  questions: 

1.  How  would  you  address  an  envelope  to  your  brother  or 
some  other  member  of  the  family  if  he  were  staying  with  friends 
in  a  large  city?  2.  An  office  building  sometimes  houses  many 
different  concerns.     How  would  you  address  an  envelope  to  an 


80  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

employee  of  a  firm  having  an  oflfice  in  such  a  building?  3.  Sup- 
pose you  were  planning  to  stop  over  in  Chicago  a  few  days 
while  on  your  way  to  the  Coast  and  did  not  know  at  what 
hotel  you  would  stay.  What  directions  could  you  give  your 
brother  in  regard  to  where  to  send  your  mail  while  you  were 
in  Chicago?  4.  What  is  the  meaning  of  R.  F.  D.  23?  5.  What 
part  of  the  Heading  should  never  be  omitted?  6.  Can  you  think 
of  any  advantage  there  may  be  in  placing  the  address  of  the  writer 
and  the  date  at  the  close  of  a  letter  instead  of  at  the  beginning? 
7.  When  you  write,  do  you  prefer  a  two-line  Heading,  or  a  three- 
line?  W^hy?  8.  When  should  the  Inside  Address  be  used? 
9.  How  does  its  arrangement  differ,  if  at  all,  from  that  of  the 
Superscription?  10.  Have  you  ever  seen  a  letter  in  which  the 
Inside  Address  came  at  the  close,  below  the  Signature  and  to  the 
left  of  it?  11.  What  Salutations  are  correct  in  a  letter  addressed 
to  a  married  woman  whom  you  do  not  know  intimately?  What 
Salutations  are  used  in  letters  to  unmarried  women?  12.  What  rules 
for  the  use  of  punctuation  and  capitals  apply  to  the  Salutation? 

The  Body  of  the  Letter.  For  the  present,  one  point  only 
will  be  emphasized.  For  many  young  writers  the  difficult 
parts  of  a  letter  are  the  beginning  and  the  concluding  sen- 
tences. Why  not  omit  them  altogether?  It  is  much  better 
to  do  so  than  to  employ  sentences  that  are  merely  polite  — 
sentences  that  are  used  so  commonly  that  they  make  little 
impression.  The  old  way  of  going  gracefully  from  the  letter 
proper  to  the  Leave-taking  by  means  of  a  worn  "stock'* 
phrase  is  losing  favor. 

(The  old  way) 

Hoping  that  I  may  hear  from  you  soon,  I  remain 

Yours  very  truly, 

Arthur  B.  Cole 
(A  better  way) 

I  hope  to  hear  from  you  soon. 

Yours  very  truly, 

Arthur  B.  CoJe 


LETTERS  81 

Leave-taking.  The  commonest  form,  correct  under  nearly 
every  circumstance,  is  Yours  truly;  but  many  others  are 
employed.  Here  are  the  more  usual  ones.  Note  that  the 
first  word  only  begins  with  a  capital. 

Truly  yours  Sincerely  yours  Gratefully  yours 

Very  truly  yours   Affectionately  yours    Respectfully  yours 

The  last  of  these  is  appropriate  for  a  young  person  to  em- 
ploy in  a  somewhat  formal  letter  to  an  older  person,  or  for 
any  one  to  employ  in  a  letter  to  a  person  of  higher  dignity, 
for  example  a  mayor  or  a  judge. 

The  Signature.  If  a  stranger  signs  her  letter  Mary  A. 
Clarke,  it  is  often  impossible  to  tell,  in  replying,  whether  she 
should  be  addressed  as  Miss  Clarke  or  Mrs,  Clarke.  Here 
are  ways  in  which  the  confusion  may  be  avoided : 

Very  truly  yours, 

(Miss)  Mary  A.  Clarke 


Very  truly  yours, 

(Mrs.)  Mary  A.  Clarke 


Yours 

very  truly, 

Please  address 

Mary  Alton  Clarke 

Mrs.  John  K.  Clarke 

Model  5 


82  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

The  Letter-picture.  This  is  a  term  which  may  be  applied 
to  the  general  appearance  of  a  letter.  An  uneven  margin 
at  the  left,  lines  crowding  to  the  right  edge  and  i)erhaps 
curving  up  at  the  end  to  make  room  for  one  more  word, 
lines  that  are  not  even  approximately  parallel,  afterthought 
lines  written  in  the  margin,  words  crossed  out,  blots,  scrawl- 
ing penmanship,  and  flourishes  are  among  the  things  which 
make  the  picture  untidy  and  suggest  lack  of  breeding.  Here 
are  still  other  matters  to  keep  in  mind : 

1.  When  the  letter-sheet  is  very  small,  the  preliminaries 
—  Heading,  Inside  Address,  Salutation  —  may  monopolize 
nearly  all  of  the  first  page.  That  makes  a  poor  picture. 
One  remedy  is  to  put  the  Inside  Address  at  the  close  as 
in  model  6.  This  is  a  fashion  that  is  growing  in  favor  even 
where  stationery  of  liberal  size  is  used.  Another  diflSculty 
arises  when  the  Salutation  extends  nearly  across  the  page. 
If  the  first  line  of  the  letter  proper  begins  under  the  colon 
following  the  Salutation,  the  appearance  may  not  be  good.  In 
such  a  case  the  indention  of  the  first  paragraph  of  the  letter 
may  be  made  to  conform  with  that  of  the  other  paragraphs. 


Yours  very  truly, 

(Miss)  Mary  L.  Peters 


Mr.  Charles  D.  Evans 
13  Chocolate  Lane 
Madison,  Wisconsin 


Model  6 


2.  Do  you  sometimes  find,  when  writing  a  letter,  that 
there  is  not  quite  room  enough  for  all  that  you  wish  to  say? 
What  do  you  do  —  crowd  the  lines  at  the  bottom  of  the  page, 
or  place  the  Leave-taking  and  the  Signature  at  the  top  of 


LETTERS  83 

the  next  sheet?  Neither  makes  a  good  picture.  The  best 
way  is  to  rewrite  the  letter,  this  time  preserving  a  wider 
margin.  If  this  is  hkely  to  prove  insufficient,  begin  the 
letter  a  Httle  lower  down. 

3.  Suppose  your  letter  is  quite  brief,  a  mere  note  calling 
for  less  than  half  a  page.  Do  you  Uke  to  see  the  lower  half 
of  the  sheet  blank .^  It  is  an  excellent  plan  to  have  two  sizes 
of  letter-paper,  one  for  notes  and  the  other  for  regular  cor- 
respondence. If  the  larger  size  must  be  used,  try  **  center- 
ing." That  is,  place  the  Heading  a  little  lower  down  and 
shorten  the  lines  by  preserving  wider  margins. 

4.  Have  you  ever  received  a  letter  which  jumped  from 
the  first  page  to  the  fourth,  then  slipped  back  to  page  two 
with  the  lines  now  running  the  long  way  of  the  page?  Do 
you  like  this  find-me-if-you-can  way  of  skipping  about?  It 
is  far  better  to  fill  the  pages  in  one-two-three-four  sequence, 
the  lines  running  across  the  sheet  as  in  a  printed  book. 

5.  A  good  letter-picture  calls  for  a  clean  pen,  good  ink 
(black  or  blue-black),  a  blotter,  and  good  stationery.  White 
paper,  unruled,  with  envelope  to  match,  is  always  in  good 
taste.  Courtesy  to  those  who  are  to  receive  your  letters 
should  prompt  you  to  use  as  good  a  quality  of  paper  as  you 
can  afford.  Styles  change  from  year  to  year;  the  stationer 
tempts  with  new  shapes,  sizes,  and  tints.  Avoid  the  ex- 
tremes as  you  avoid  extremes  in  dress. 


EXERCISE  4 

Answer  the  folloioing  questions: 

1.  Where  should  the  first  line  of  the  Body  of  the  letter  begin? 
2.  What  are  the  most  common  forms  of  Leave-taking?  3.  Which 
one  is  appropriate  for  a  young  person  to  use  when  writing  to  an 
older  person,  especially  a  person  of  higher  dignity?  4.  How 
should  women  sign  their  letters?  5.  What  dij95culty  do  you  have 
in  giving  a  good  appearance  to  (a)  the  addressed  envelope,  (6)  the 


84  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

Heading,  (c)  the  Inside  Address,  (d)  the  Leave-taking?  6.  What 
advice  can  you  give  concerning  what  to  do  (a)  if  the  length  of  the 
letter  is  such  that  the  Leave-taking  and  the  Signature  come  at 
the  top  of  a  page;  (6)  if  the  letter  is  so  brief  that  it  fills  less  than 
half  a  sheet;  (c)  if  the  letter-sheet  is  so  small  that  the  preliminary 
parts  of  the  letter  fill  nearly  a  page? 

Thus  far  attention  has  been  directed  mainly  to  the  for- 
malities of  letter  writing,  such  as  the  arrangement  and  the 
wording  of  the  Heading  and  the  Salutation  and  the  correct 
use  of  punctuation  marks  and  capitals.  From  this  point 
on,  the  message  that  the  letter  contains,  which  after  all  is 
the  essential  thing,  will  command  chief  attention,  though 
formalities  must  still  be  kept  in  mind.  Each  exercise  asks 
you  to  study  a  typical  letter  and  then  write  one. 

EXERCISE  5 
My  dear  Miss  Pratt: 

Please  excuse  John's  absence 
yesterday.  Owing  to  sickness  in  the  family,  it 
became  necessary  for  him  to  remain  at  home. 

Yours  very  truly, 

Mrs.  Charles  Ward 
October  15,  1919 

Which  would  be  better  for  a  note  of  this  kind,  a  card  or  a 
letter-sheet?  How  else  might  Mrs.  Ward  have  signed  her  name? 
Would  it  have  been  better  had  she  given  her  home  address? 
Is  the  date  necessary? 

Whichy  if  anyy  of  tJie  following  do  you  like?     Give  reasons. 

1.  Please  excuse  Jane's  absence  owing  to  sickness.  2.  Please 
excuse  Jane  as  she  was  sick  and  oblige  Yours  truly,  Mrs.  Brown. 
3.  Jane  being  ill  was  the  cause  of  her  absence.  Please  excuse 
her.  4.  Please  excuse  Jane's  tardiness  owing  to  the  car  was 
late,  5.  John  has  been  sick  for  the  passed  two  days.  There- 
fore could  not  attend  school.     6.    Would  you  please  excuse  John 


LETTERS  85 

for  being  absent  on  Mon.  Nov.  3,  1919.  7.  Kindly  excuse 
John  Hov.  3  he  had  a  sick  headache.  8.  Kindly  excuse  John 
for  being  absent  Monday  which  was  due  to  illness  and  oblige. 
9.    Please  excuse  my  son,  Samuel  from  being  absent  Thursday. 

Write  one  of  the  following  and  submit  it  for  class  criticism, 

1.  A  note  to  a  teacher  explaining  why  you  have  not  prepared 
a  certain  lesson  and  asking  to  be  excused  from  reciting.  2. 
A  note  from  a  boy  to  his  employer  explaining  why  he  will  be 
unable  to  report  for  work  on  Monday  morning.  3.  A  note 
to  a  teacher  explaining  that  you  are  ill  and  asking  for  the 
lesson  assignments  for  the  past  week. 

EXERCISE  6 


The  Burbank  Literary  Club 

meets  in  Room  9  on  Friday,  December  10,  at 
four.  This  will  be  an  open  meeting.  All  Seniors 
and  Juniors  are  invited  to  attend.  The  program 
follows. 

Piano  selection  Eleanor  Russell 

Talk  on  letter  writing  Beatrice  Lyman 

Songs  Derfla  Stone 

Some  famous  letters  Genevieve  Lane 

Songs  Girls'  Glee  Club 

Mary  Towne,  Secretary 


What  criticism  can  you  make  of  the  blackboard  notices  which 
appear  in  your  school?  Why  should  such  notices  be  brief?  Why 
should  they  be  dated? 

Write  one  of  the  following: 

1.  A  blackboard  announcement  of  a  club  meeting,  concert, 
or  game  to  which  the  public  are  invited.    2.    Copy  for  a  printed 


86  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

invitation  to  a  school  aflPair,  or  for  a  printed  ticket  of  admis- 
sion. 3.  A  notice,  to  be  posted  in  a  country  post-office, 
announcing  a  picnic  or  an  entertainment.  4.  A  notice  for  a 
church  calendar,  calling  attention  to  a  meeting  of  some  club 
or  society.  5.  A  blackboard  notice  giving  a  general  invitation 
to  join  a  school  club.  6.  A  blackboard  notice  calling  for  sup- 
port for  the  school  paper.  7.  A  notice  announcing  the  results 
of  a  club  election.  8.  A  notice  designed  to  get  everybody  to 
attend  an  important  game. 


EXERCISE  7 

84  Evergreen  Avenue 
Middletown,  N.  Y. 
April  6,  1919 
Secretary  of  Williams  College 

Williamstown,  Mass. 
Dear  Sir: 

Kindly  send  me  a  copy  of  the  College  cata- 
logue and  whatever  other  printed  matter  you  may 
have  for  general  distribution  that  would  be  of  interest 
to  a  candidate  for  admission. 

Yours  very  truly, 

Samuel  C.  Hartley 

Where  else  in  the  letter  might  the  Inside  Address  have  been 
placed.^  What  advice  can  you  give  regarding  how  to  make  so 
brief  a  note  look  right  on  the  letter-sheet?  Would  the  letter 
be  improved  if  it  closed  with  Thanking  you  in  advance,  I  remain, 
etc.?  Is  it  necessary  to  send  a  note  of  thanks  upon  receipt 
of  a  catalogue?     Why  should  a  letter  like  the  above  be  brief? 

Write  one  of  the  following: 

1.  A  postcard  note  requesting  a  postmaster  to  forward  your 
mail,  till  further  notice,  to  a  certain  address.  *  2.  A  letter  to 
a  school  principal  asking  for  the  course  of  study  and  for  in- 
formation concerning  admission  requirements. 


LETTERS  87 


EXERCISE  8 


Centertown  High  School 

April  9,  1919 
Manager  of  Baseball  Nine 
High  School,  Chester 

Dear  Sir: 

Centertown  High  would  like  to  arrange  for 
a  game  with  your  school.  Our  schedule  is  full  except 
for  two  dates,  June  16  and  23.  Owing  to  school  regula- 
tions, we  cannot  play  out  of  town  except  on  the  second 
of  these  dates.  Wesley  Field  can  be  secured  for 
June   16. 

In  case  you  should  come  to  Centertown,  the  gate 
receipts,  less  the  amount  spent  in  necessary  expenses, 
would  be  equally  divided.  We  should  expect  the  same 
arrangements  if  we  played  in  Chester. 

An  early  reply  will  be  greatly  appreciated. 

Yours  truly, 

Earl  B.  Rood 

Manager 

Why  does  Sir,  in  the  Salutation,  begin  with  a  capital.^  Should 
the  words  high  school  always  begin  with  capitals.'*  Should  you 
like  the  letter  better  if  it  closed  with  An  early  reply  will  oblige 
Yours  truly y  etc.?  What  criticism,  favorable  or  unfavorable, 
can  you  make  of  the  letter? 

Write  one  of  the  following: 

1.  A  reply  to  Earl  Rood's  letter.  2.  A  letter  in  which  you 
propose  a  joint  meeting  of  two  clubs.  You  are  to  imagine  that 
you  are  secretary  of  one  of  the  clubs.  3.  A  letter  to  the 
owner  of  a  field,  or  to  the  park  commissioners,  asking  for 
the  use  of  grounds  for  a  game  to  be  played  next  Saturday 
morning.  4.  A  letter  to  your  parents  asking  permission  to 
accept  an  invitation  to  spend  the  week-end  at  the  home  of  a 
friend. 


88  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

EXERCISE  9 

Deerford  High  School 

March  9,  1919 
Dear  Mr.  BuUard: 

The  annual  contest  between  the 
boys'  debating  clubs  comes  Friday  evening,  March  15, 
at  eight  o'clock.  The  members  of  the  two  teams 
have  expressed,  unanimously,  the  desire  that  you 
serve  as  one  of   the  judges. 

If  you  find  it  possible  to  accept  this  invitation,  a 
car  will  call  for  you  at  a  quarter  to  eight  on  the  evening 
of  the  debate. 

Yours  very  truly, 

Edgar  F.  Blake 
President  of  Hopkins  Club 
John  K.  Bullard,  Esq. 
87  Newfound  Avenue 

Where  else  might  the  Inside  Address  have  been  placed? 
What  does  the  title  Esq.  indicate.'^  Would  it  be  correct  to  write 
Mr.  John  K.  Bullardy  Esq.?  Why  was  it  best  for  Edgar  to  give 
his  official  title?  Would  Respectfully  yours  have  been  a  more 
appropriate  Leave-taking? 

Write  one  of  the  following: 

1.  A  note  from  Judge  Bullard  accepting  or  declining  the 
invitation.  2.  A  blackboard  notice  of  the  debate.  3.  A  note 
to  a  friend  inviting  him  to  attend  the  debate  or  some  other 
school  affair.  4.  A  note  to  a  teacher  inviting  her  to  accompany 
a  group  of  young  people  to  a  play. 

EXERCISE  10 

Dear  Mr.  Williams: 

This     will     introduce    to    you 

Edward  Parsons,  a  classmate  of  mine  in  Derby  High 

School.      His  family  is  moving  to  Cleveland  and  it  is 

probable  that  he  will  attend  University  School,  which 

•    means  that  soon  he  may  be  reciting  to  you  in  history. 


LETTERS  89 

Whether  or  not  this  good  fortune  comes  to  him,  I 
am  sure  that  you  will  enjoy  meeting  him  and  that 
he  will  value  your  friendship. 

Yours  truly, 

Henry  F.  Soule 
Oldaeres 

April  10,  1919 

Should  a  letter  of  introduction  be  sealed?  Why  is  it  custo- 
mary to  write  on  the  envelope  containing  the  introduction  the 

words  Introducing  Mr.  ?     Why  should  such  a  letter  be 

brief   and   contain   nothing   but   the   introduction?      Why   did 
Henry  omit  a  part  of  the  Heading? 

Write  a  letter  similar  to  the  abovCy  for  some  one  who  is  plait" 
ning  to  spend  a  vacation  in  a  town  where  you  have  friends. 

Write  a  letter  to  a  friend  living  in  a  distant  town,  telling  him 
about  a  schoolmate  of  yours  who  is  planning  to  move  to  that 
town.  That  is,  write  such  a  letter  as  Henry  Soule  may  have 
written  to  Mr.  Williams  soon  after  giving  a  letter  of  introduc- 
tion to  Edward  Parsons. 

EXERCISE  11 

59  Medway  Road 
September  2,  1919 
Dear  Ellen: 

Next  Saturday  all  the  Joneses,  includ- 
ing Rags  and  Towser,  are  to  make  a  grand  excursion 
to  Congamong  Lake.  If  you  don't  mind  sitting  four 
to  a  seat,  we  will  call  for  you  at  nine. 

Don't  put  up  lunch.  Hannah  has  entire  charge  of 
meats  and  drinks  and  will  tolerate  no  interference. 
But  you  will  need  warm  wraps,  for  we  may  not  be  back 
before  bedtime. 

Such  an  important  note  as  this,  Ellen,  demands  an 
answer  by  return  post. 

Sincerely, 

Margaret  Jones 


90  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

Why  is  part  of  the  Heading  omitted?  Why  is  {Miss)  omitted 
from  the  signature?  Why  should  such  an  invitation  be  an- 
swered promptly? 

Write  one  of  the  following: 

1.  An  invitation  from  one  boy  to  another,  or  from  one  girl 
to  another,  to  do  something  interesting  —  take  a  Saturday 
*'hike,"  go  sailing,  attend  a  concert,  join  a  house-party.  2.  A 
letter  from  Ellen  to  Margaret,  accepting  or  declining  her  in- 
vitation. 3.  An  invitation  from  a  boy  or  a  girl  to  an  older 
person. 


EXERCISE   12 

Home 
August  2 
Dear  Bob: 

•  Here  are  a  few  directions  about  the  journey 
you  are  to  make.  Most  of  them  you  may  not  need, 
but  since  it  will  be  your  first  journey  alone,  perhaps 
you  will  not  mind  my  going  into  particulars. 

Send  your  luggage  home  by  express,  "collect,"  which 
means  that  the  charges  will  be  paid  at  this  end.  You 
won't  mind  that,  I'm  sure,  nor  the  inclosed  tags,  all 
beautifully  addressed,  to  tie  securely  to  handles. 

Purchase  a  ticket  not  for  home  but  for  Boston. 
The  train  you  are  planning  to  take  goes  through  with- 
out change  at  Portland  and  reaches  Boston  at  4:35. 
I  hope  to  meet  you  at  the  North  Station ;  but  business 
may  keep  me  at  home,  or  I  may  have  two  punctures 
and  a  blowout,  which  might  interfere  with  my  being  on 
hand.  In  case  I  do  not  appear,  take  the  Elevated 
(reached  by  wide  staircase  without  your  leaving  the 
station)  for  South  Station,  buy  another  ticket,  and 
proceed  home  on  the  5:55  express  via  Willimantic. 

Here  is  just  one  more  point.  Your  train  may  be  late. 
You  might  not  reach  Boston  in  time  to  catch  the 
express.    Then  what?     Why,  it's  perfectly  simple.    You 


LETTERS  91 

take  a  taxi  for  the  Bellevue  and  put  up  for  the  night. 
I'll  find  you  there;  or,  if  I  should  not  appear,  you  can 
take  a  morning  train.  In  case  you  do  fail  to  make 
connections,  be  a  good  boy  and  send  Mother  a  telegram 
so  that  she  won't  be  worrying  about  a  lost  son. 

If  any  other  emergency  arises,  meet  it.  You're 
fourteen.  Policemen  are  mighty  fine  people,  when  you 
are  in  a  fix.  There's  a  Y.  M.  C.  A.  in  every  city, 
aching  to  help  you;  it's  their  business.  Then  there's 
a  telegraph  station,  and  there's  the  long  distance  'phone. 
If  you  get  stranded,  send  word  home  and  probably  some 
member  of  the  family  will  think  it  worth  while  to  go 
after  you,  for  you  will  be  useful  next  winter  in  cleaning 
the  sidewalks  and  doing  other  odd  jobs. 

Please  give  my  regards  to  the  Barstows  and  tell 
them  again  how  much  we  appreciate  their  kindness  in 
keeping  you  for  an  extra  two  weeks  after  the  rest  of  us 
had  to  return  home. 

Yours  truly. 

Brother  Tom 
Robert  Peterkin,  Esq. 

New  Harbor,  Me. 

Is  this  a  good  letter?  Are  the  directions  clear .^  Do  you 
approve  of  the  Heading.'^  Did  Tom  give  his  brother's  address 
at  the  close  of  the  letter  in  a  spirit  of  fun,  or  for  a  special  reason? 

Write  one  of  the  following: 

1.  A  letter  to  a  friend  who  is  coming  to  town,  giving  di- 
rections for  finding  your  home,  or  a  field  where  a  game  is  to  be 
played,  or  whatever  other  place  you  please.  2.  A  letter  to 
a  person  who  is  to  spend  the  summer  in  a  town  where  you 
have  spent  a  vacation,  giving  whatever  suggestions  you  may 
think  desirable.  3.  A  postcard  note  from  Bob  acknowledg- 
ing receipt  of  his  brother's  letter.  4.  A  telegram  from  Bob 
announcing  that  he  is  staying  for  the  night  at  the  Bellevue. 
(Before  performing  this  task,  get  a  telegraph  blank  and  study 
the  printed  directions.) 


JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

EXERCISE  13 

Nara,  Japan 
November  30,  1917 
Dear  Folks  at  Home: 

A  few  nights  ago  when  in 
Osaka,  a  big  city  down  by  the  Inland  Sea,  I  took  a 
walk  which  you  may  like  to  hear  about.  It  was 
through  a  business  section,  yet  the  streets,  which 
were  without  sidewalks,  were  so  narrow  that  two  auto- 
mobiles could  not  pass  without  one  crawling  under 
the  other.  Finally  I  saw  ahead  many  lanterns,  large 
red  ones,  in  front  of  the  little  shops,  and  hastened 
on  to  see  what  might  be  the  fun. 

It  seems  a  temple  had  recently  undergone  repairs, 
and  while  the  workmen  were  busy,  the  gods  (idols)  had 
been  removed  to  another  place.  Now  that  all  was  spic 
and  span  again,  the  gods  had  been  brought  back,  and 
the  neighborhood  was  holding  a  festival.  The  temple 
was  brilliantly  lighted  with  beautiful  lanterns.  Priests 
in  white  and  gold  were  sitting  on  a  sort  of  side  porch, 
and  at  intervals  a  girl,  about  your  age,  Ethel,  danced 
slowly  while  a  priest  beat  a  drum. 

Thousands  came  to  worship.  That  is,  each  ap- 
proached the  temple,  bowed,  clapped  his  hands  two  or 
three  times,  whispered  a  few  words  of  prayer,  then 
tossed  a  coin  into  a  big  contribution  box  which  had 
slats  across  the  top.  In  the  temple  yard  were  many 
little  stands  where  all  sorts  of  trinkets  were  for  sale  — 
balloons,  dolls,  toys,  cakes,  candies,  and  I  can't  re- 
member what  else.  There  were  ever  so  many  boys 
and  girls  about,  and  scores  of  babies  strapped  to 
their  mothers'  backs  by  means  of  broad  sashes.  I 
bought  a  doll  for  eight  cents  and  gave  it  to  a  little 
mite  about  your  age,  Mildred,  who  had  been  looking 
wistfully  at  it  for  a  long  time  but  did  not  have  enough 
money  by  sixteen  sen  (eight  cents)  to  become  its 
mother. 


LETTERS  93 

Around  the  temple  yard  (it  was  about  the  size  of  a 
city  school  yard)  were  stone  posts  about  six  feet  high, 
with  cavities  near  the  top  for  lanterns;  and  all  the  little 
shops  for  half  a  mile  in  every  direction  were  gay  with 
red  lanterns.  Shops,  you  know,  are  little  stores  each 
about  the  size  of  our  diningroom,  where  everything 
under  the  sun  is  sold.  They  have  no  front  windows 
but  are  open  to  the  street.  Hour  after  hour  the  happy 
crowds,  not  at  all  noisy  as  they  might  be  in  America, 
passed  up  and  down,  buying  things,  praying,  then 
buying  more  things  or  simply  drifting  along,  the 
scraping  of  their  clogs  making  a  refrain  very  different 
from  the  roar  of  our  city  streets. 

In  my  next  letter,  Mildred,  I  mean  to  tell  you  about 
a  theater  in  Osaka  where  all  the  actors  and  actresses 
are  dolls,  perhaps  four  feet  high,  wearing  lovely 
clothes,  each  doll  held  by  an  attendant  in  black  whom 
you  are  not  supposed  to  look  at,  who  makes  the  doll's 
hands  and  head  move  as  if  it  were  alive,  while  a  singer 
chants  the  story  which  the  dolls  act  out. 

Thank  you,  Donald,  for  your  newsy  letters.  I 
thought  of  you  and  your  love  for  astronomy,  recently, 
when  I  turned  out  at  four  in  the  morning  to  take  a 
steamer  down  the  Inland  Sea.  The  stars  were  very 
bright  and  remained  so  until  nearly  six,  when  they  faded 
and  left  a  pale  moon  —  like  a  monarch  deserted  by  all 
his  hosts. 

Love  to  everybody  in  the  house,  and  best  regards  to 
all  the  neighbors. 

Uncle  Tom 

Does  this  letter  begin  too  abruptly  to  suit  you.f^  Is  it  con- 
versational in  tone?  What  is  the  secret  of  a  good  travel  letter .?* 
Do  you  happen  to  have  at  home  a  travel  letter  that  you  would 
be  willing  to  read  to  the  class.'*  Is  the  postage  for  a  letter 
going  to  a  foreign  country  the  same  as  for  other  letters  .f*  Why 
are  letters  received  from  foreign  countries  so  often  written 
on  very  thin  paper.'* 


94  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

Write  one  of  the  Jollowing: 

1.  A  home  letter,  full  of  news,  to  a  friend  who,  you  may 
imagine,  is  traveling  in  France.  2.  A  letter  full  of  school 
news  to  a  schoolmate  who  is  recovering  from  severe  illness. 
3.  A  letter  to  a  cousin  telling  of  a  recent  good  time.  4.  A 
steamer  letter;   that  is,  one  to  be  read  on  board  ship. 

EXERCISE   14 

Cvt  paper  to  represent  envelopes^  or  mark  ovt  rectangles  to 
represent  them.  Address  one  for  each  letter  in  this  chapter 
and  submit  them  for  class  criticism.  Take  great  pains  not 
only  to  make  the  address  correct  in  form  but  to  give  the  envelope 
a  neat  appearance.  That  is,  be  careful  that  lines  are  parallel 
and  the  items  so  placed  that  the  '^picture''  is  attractive, 

EXERCISE  15 

Inventing  appropriate  names,  address  an  envelope  to  each 
of  the  following.  Instead  of  a  real  envelope  a  rectangle  of 
paper  may  be  substituted. 

A  clergyman  in  Indianapolis;  the  principal  of  a  city  high 
school;  a  friend  who  is  visiting  relatives  in  Seattle;  the  editor 
of  a  newspaper;  a  gentleman  staying  at  a  New  York  hotel; 
a  friend  passing  through  Baltimore,  who  is  to  call  at  the  general 
delivery  window  at  the  post-office  for  his  mail;  a  lady  visiting 
Mrs.  J.  G.  Holland,  who  occupies  apartment  14  of  the  Wood- 
stock, 30  Pershing  St.,  San  Francisco. 

EXERCISE  16 

Write  one  or  more  letters,  as  your  instructor  may  ddcrminCy 
selecting  from  the  following: 

1.  To  a  teacher,  asking  to  be  excused  from  a  recitation. 
2.    To  a  friend,  informing  him  that  he  has  been  elected  a  mem- 


LETTERS  95 

ber  of  a  club,  the  nature  of  which  you  explain.  3.  To  the 
secretary  of  the  club  mentioned  in  2,  declining  or  accepting 
membership.  4.  To  a  friend,  congratulating  him  on  a  re- 
cently won  victory.  5.  To  a  friend  of  your  own  age,  inviting 
him  (or  her)  to  take  lunch  with  you.  6.  To  the  publishers  of 
the  Literary  Digest  (Funk  &  Wagnalls,  New  York)  asking  them 
to  send  you  the  magazine  for  a  year.  The  price  is  four  dollars. 
How  will  you  send  the  money? 


EXERCISE  17 

Perform  one  of  the  following  tasks.  Write  naturally,  keep- 
ing in  mind  the  purpose  of  your  letter. 

1.  Write  a  letter  to  a  friend,  describing  a  journey  you  have 

taken  recently,  or  a  good  time  of  some  sort.  A  real 
friend,  in  this  task,  will  be  preferable  to  one  imagined, 
a  real  chain  of  happenings  preferable  to  anything 
"  make  believe." 

2.  Write  a  letter  to  your  parents,  who  are  away  from  home. 

3.  Charles   Glegg   of   13   Wallace   Terrace,   Edinburgh,   is   a 

friend  of  yours.  The  school  he  attends  has  no  gym- 
nasium; he  would  like  a  description  of  yours.  Write 
to  him.  (For  gymnasium  you  may  substitute  some- 
thing else  having  to  do  with  school.  If  you  are  a 
girl,  you  may  write  to  Jean  Glegg,  who  is  sister  to 
Charles.) 

4.  If  you  are  a  girl,  write  to  a  friend,  real  or  imagined,  de- 

scribing certain,  costumes  you  have  admired  recently. 

5.  A  child  has  been  made  a  cripple  for  life  by  an  accident. 

Your  school  is  sending  him  a  wheel-chair.  Write 
the  letter  which  is  to  go  with  the  gift. 

EXERCISE  18 

Com£  to  class  prepared  to  write,  from  the  instructor's  dicta- 
tion, three  or  four  letters.  Make  neat  copies  of  these  letters  and 
hand  them  to  the  instructor  the  day  following. 


96  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

EXERCISE   19 

What  replies  would  you  make  to  the  follovnngf 

1.  "It  isn't  necessary  for  me  to  learn  to  write  letters;    I 

mean  to  have  a  stenographer  to  attend  to  my  corre- 
spondence.'* 

2.  **Who  cares  how  a  letter  is  punctuated  or  how  the  parts 

are  arranged?  What  the  letter  says  is  the  whole 
thing." 

3.  **  Letter  writing  isn't  in   my  line.     I  never  could  write 

a  decent  letter  and  I  never  shall  be  able  to.'* 

4.  "Some  of  the  best  letters  I've  ever  received  have  been 

hastily  scrawled  affairs,  more  blots  than  punctuation 
marks." 

5.  "Many  a  business  man   has  made   his   fortune  without 

being  able  to  write  more  than  his  name.** 

6.  "  Some  of  the  stupidest  letters  I  have  ever  received  have 

been  perfect  in  form." 

7.  "It's  all  nonsense  to  say  that  a  man's  character  is  re- 

vealed by  the  kind  of  letter  he  writes,  and  that  he  is 
judged  by  his  letters  as  he  is  judged  by  his  personal 
appearance  and  by  his  speech  in  daily  conversation.'* 

Note:    For  additional  exercises  in  letter  writting,  see  Course  VI. 


DRILL  EXERCISES 

WORD  DERIVATION 

Have  you  ever,  while  eating  a  sandwich,  paused  in  the 
middle  of  a  bite  to  wonder  where  the  agreeable  combination 
of  meat  and  bread  got  its  name?  Nothing  about  it  suggests 
sand  or  witches.  Scholars  tell  us  that  it  bears  the  name  of 
a  certain  English  earl  who,  long  ago,  brought  this  form  of 
hasty  luncheon  into  aristocratic  favor.  There  is  an  interest- 
ing story  concerning  it.  Where  did  the  word  dunce  come 
from?  We  trace  it  back  to  a  man's  name.  The  man  is 
forgotten;  the  name  lives  on.  A  century  hence  people  may 
be  wondering  how  the  word  ford,  applied  to  a  certain  type 
of  automobile,  originated.  Many  new  things  bear  the 
names  of  people.  Fuchsia,  dahlia^  and  wistaria  are  not  the 
only  flowers  bearing  the  names  of  botanists.  Macadam  was 
invented  by  a  Mr.  Macadam.  Things  are  named  also  after 
places.  It  is  easy  to  guess  that  spaniels  were  first  so  called 
because  they  came  from  Spain.  Copper  came  from  Cyprus, 
currants  from  Corinth,  sardines  from  Sardinia. 


The  words  in  the  following  list  have  nothing  to  do  with 
persons  or  places.  How  did  they  originate?  Can  you  not 
add  to  the  list? 


mew 

hiss 

bang 

snarl 

grunt 

click 

howl 

chuckle 

chirp 

whiz 

chickadee 

twitter 

chatter 

zip 

snore 
97 

crackle 

98 


JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 


It  is  estimated  that  nearly  one-third  of  our  language  is, 
directly  or  indirectly,  of  Latin  origin.  That  is,  we  have 
taken  words  once  spoken  by  the  Romans  and  made  them 
over.  But  words  have  been  borrowed  not  only  from 
the  Romans;  they  have  been  adopted  from  every  part 
of  the  world.  Perhaps  you  can  guess  where  some  of  the 
following  came  from.  A  good  dictionary  will  tell  you 
about  the  rest.  It  may  take  five  or  ten  minutes  to  learn 
the  meaning  of  the  letters  and  symbols  employed  in  the 
dictionary  in  giving  such  information.  Don't  grudge  the 
time.     It  pays  well  to  learn  how  to  use  a  dictionary. 


wigwam 

chauffeur 

telephone 

crag 

tea 

kimono 

postscript 

molasses 

sabbath 

soprano 

adieu 

macaroni 

czar 

yacht 

mosquito 

sombrero 

3 

Rufus  originally  meant  red.     What  does  your  birth  name 

mean?     Perhaps   the   dictionary   will   tell  you.     Here   are 
other  names  which  may  interest  you. 

Margaret           Harold              Alfred  Theodore 

Dorothea           Blanche            Clara  Flora 

Ethel                  Winifred           Gertrude  Peter 

Elizabeth          Henry               Francis  Phyllis 


Sometimes  a  word,  in  addition  to  conveying  a  meaning, 
suggests  a  story.  Babely  for  example,  not  only  expresses  the 
idea  of  tumult  or  confusion,  but  brings  to  mind  the  Bible 
story  of  the  building  of  the  tower  of  Babel.  When  the  word 
atlas  is  mentioned,  we  think  first  of  a  large  book  full  of  maps; 
but  if  we  are  familiar  with  Greek  myths,  we  may  think  also 
of  the  giant  who  groaned  under  the  burden  of  holding  up 


DRILL  EXERCISES  99 

the  world  on  his  shoulders.  Volcano  suggests  the  forge  of 
the  blacksmith  god  Vulcan;  viorphine  brings  to  mind  Mor- 
pheus, god  of  sleep;  and  the  tragic  story  of  Tantalus  is 
brought  back  by  tantalize. 

Other  words,  when  their  origin  is  known,  suggest  pictures, 
if  the  imagination  is  at  all  active.  Smuggle  is  traced  to  a 
word  meaning  to  creep.  Squirrel  probably  comes  from  two 
old  words  meaning  shadow  and  tail.  Can  you  not  see  the 
picture?  Anguish  is  from  the  Latin  ango,  to  choke;  torment 
is  from  the  Latin  torqueo,  to  twist.  Debate  really  means  to 
strike  down.  The  original  meanings  of  other  words  cause 
us  to  smile.  It  seems  that  a  nasturtium  is  a  nose-twister,  an 
amateur  is  a  lover,  a  butler  one  who  looks  after  bottles,  an 
acrobat  one  who  walks  on  tiptoe.  To  indent  a  paragraph  is 
to  take  a  bite  out  of  it.  To  fret  is  to  eat.  Parrot  means  little 
Peter,  and  tassel  seems  to  be  derived  from  ankle-bone.  Pos- 
sibly the  far-away  source  of  ivheedle  is  a  Greek  verb  meaning 
to  wag  the  tail! 

The  derivations  of  still  other  words  reveal  their  essential 
meaning.  A  climax  is  a  ladder.  An  anchor  is  a  hook.  A 
periscope  is  an  instrument  for  looking  around.  Centipede 
means  a  hundred  feet. 

It  may  be  that  the  dictionary  which  you  are  accustomed 
to  use  does  not  trace  words  to  their  source,  but  probably 
there  is  one  in  the  schoolroom  that  does.  You  may  have 
difficulty  at  first  in  understanding  the  dictionary's  way  of 
explaining  derivations;  yet  it  is  well,  teacher  and  pupils 
working  together,  to  examine  a  few  words.  It  will  help  to 
interest  you  in  language,  and  through  such  interest  will 
grow  a  desire  to  treat  words  with  greater  respect. 

Look  up  the  derivation  of  the  following  words: 


umbrella 

circus 

accumulate 

lunatic 

Bible 

style 

manicure 

telegraph 

cranberry 

silly 

dandelion 

error 

100 


JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 


smear 
coffin 


salary 
thimble 


cunmng 
unanimous 


crystal 
senate 


Look  up  the  derivation  of  the  following: 


neighbor 

autograph 

courage 

athlete 

pastor 

minister 

mayor 

manufacture 

submarine 

alphabet 

colossal 

handkerchief 

bicycle 

agriculture 

automobile 

cauliflower 

cyclometer 

millinery 

alderman 

dexterity 

PRONUNCIATION 

Y-e-s  spells  yes,  not  yep  nor  ayup  nor  ayuh.  N-o  spells 
wo,  not  nope  nor  naw.  There  is  a  difference  in  meaning  be- 
tween don't  you  and  dont  chew.  W-h-a-t  d-i-d  y-o-u  s-a-y? 
is  not  pronounced  Huh? 

Does  it  matter?  Everybody  says  nope  and  ayuh  and  huh. 
No,  not  everybody;  and  there  are  times  and  occasions  when 
few  of  us  employ  such  expressions  intentionally.  If  they  do 
slip  out  at  unguarded  moments,  we  are  ashamed,  just  as  we 
are  when  a  yawn  overtakes  us.  We  are  well  aware  that 
faulty  pronunciation  is  a  sign  of  ill  breeding. 

Many  common  mispronunciations  are  due  solely  to  care- 
lessness, but  many  arise  from  ignorance.  They  are  like 
rips  in  a  garment,  or  spots,  which  the  wearer  of  the  garment 
does  not  perceive  because  they  are  where  he  cannot  see  them. 
Even  if  no  one  noticed  our  slips,  to  mistreat  a  word  would 
be  bad  manners  just  the  same.  Remember  that  the  English 
language  is  our  language.  Respect  it!  Have  a  pride! 
Learn  to  employ  it  as  well-bred  men  and  women  do.  Watch 
your  speech. 


Good  evenin'.  Bill.     Where  you  workin*?" 
I'm  doin'  nothin'  at  present,  Tom;   just  livin'." 


DRILL  EXERCISES 


>01 


You  have  heard  people  talk  this  way,  clippin'  every  final 
g.  Usually  such  people  also  say  kep  for  kept  and  pronounce 
strict  as  if  it  were  spelled  strick. 

Practice  saying  the  following.  DonH  let  final  g  and  t 
escape  you. 


going 

doing 

learning 

pudding 

something 

nothing 

everything 

anything 

speaking 

asking 

running 

amusing 

evening 

including 

leaving 

waiting 

fact 

strict 

direct 

perfect 

connect 

extract 

expect 

kept 

except 

tract 

attract 

select 

2 

A  consonant  occurring  elsewhere  than  at  the  end  of  a 
word  is  sometimes  slighted.  Recognize,  in  careless  speech, 
becomes  reconize.  Sometimes  an  entire  syllable  is  clipped. 
For  usually,  we  say  usally. 

Practice  pronouncing  the  following: 


quarter 

partridge 

Arctic 

recognition 

orphan 

government 

adjoining 

chestnut 

February 

library 

surprise 

eleven 

mystery 

history 

perhaps 

regular 

governor 

usually 

poem 

enthusiasm 

delivery 

actually 

calculate 

reasonable 

machinery 

superintendent 

majestically 

several 

particular 

miserable 

personal 

national 

interest 

general 

barrel 

really 

memory 

laboratory 

accidentally 

different 

reverend 

quarrel 

aerial 

aeroplane 

military 

natural 

vowel 

jewel 

Here  is  a  nonsense  paragraph  containing  fifty  or  more  words 
which,  in  careless  speech,  might  be  mispronounced.    Try  it. 


162-  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

At  a  quarter  of  eleven,  several  military  gentlemen  direct  from 
the  laboratory,  where  the  superintendent  and  the  governor  had 
accidentally  met  them,  imparted  an  air  of  mystery  by  entering 
the  adjacent  library  where  they  looked  up  the  meaning  of  par- 
tridge and  Arctic  pudding.  This  was  of  particular  interest, 
perhaps,  to  the  honest  general  delivery  clerk  who  happened  to 
be  g(nng  by  reciting  from  memory  a  poem  about  an  orphan 
who  accidentally  fell  into  a  barrel  while  seeking  a  jewel,  and  was 
rendered  miserable.  Really,  it  was  something  majestically 
different.  National  history  was  made  on  that  memorable  Febru- 
ary evening  of  many  surprises.  Yet  the  clock  kept  ticking  as 
usual,  all  its  machinery  being  in  perfect  running  order.  But  this 
narrative  grows  unusually  tiresome  for  several  reasons.  My 
enthusiasm  actually  wanes.  You  may  summon  my  aeroplane. 
I  must  be  going.     Good  evening. 

4 

Ath  el  et  ics,  sawr,  and  drown  ded  are  common  mispronunci- 
ations of  ath  let  ics,  saw,  and  drowned.  Occasionally  a  silent 
letter  is  sounded.  Often  should  be  pronounced  ofn,  and  herb 
should  be  pronounced  erb. 

Study  the  following: 

ath  lete  (not  ath  el  etc)  um  brel  la   (not  um  ber  el  la) 

a  cross  (not  a  crost)  hin  drance  (not  hin  der  ance) 

saw     (not  sawr)  col  umn  (not  col  yum) 

Wales  (not  Whales)  spasm  (spaz'm,  not  spaz  um) 

moun  tain  (not  ma  oun  tain)  law  (not  lawr) 

chasm  (kaz'm,  not  kaz  um)  per  se  vere  (not  per  ser  vere) 

salmon  (sam  un,  not  sal  mon)  now  (not  na  ow) 

house  (not  haouse)  sword   (sord,  not  sword) 

used  (not  ust)  listen  (hs'n,  not  lissun) 

SPELLING 

In  spelling  niece,  relieve,  and  other  words  in  which  the 
diphthongs  ei  and  ie  have  the  sound  of  long  e,  perhaps  you 
are  sometimes  in  doubt  which  of  the  two  letters  making  up 


DRILL  EXERCISES 


103 


the  diphthong  should  come  first.  When  in  doubt,  note 
what  consonant  comes  immediately  before  the  diphthong; 
then  apply  this  rule: 

If  the  letter  c  you  spy. 

Place  the  e  before  the  i. 

If  you  do  not  spy  a  c. 

Place  the  i  before  the  e. 

But  either,  neither,  leisure,  seize 

Are  four  exceptions,  if  you  please. 

Even  if  you  do  not  remember  more  than  the  first  two  lines 
of  this  jingle,  it  may  help  in  time  of  need.  Here  are  the 
principal  words  to  which  the  rule  applies.  Notice  that  in. 
each  case  the  diphthong  has  the  sound  of  long  e,  as  in  be 
and  tree. 


receive 

believe 

piece 

fierce 

receipt 

belief 

pierce 

grief 

deceive 

relieve 

shriek 

grieve 

deceit 

relief 

chief 

fiend 

conceive 

achieve 

niece 

yield 

perceive 

besiege 

thief 

ceiling 

Write  the  rule  from  memory. 

Write  from  dictation  the  following  sentences.     Do  not  forget 
the  exceptions. 

1.  When  my  niece  perceived  the  thief,  her  piercing  shriek 
brought  the  chief  of  police  to  her  relief.  2.  He  seized  the 
fierce  fiend,  who  now  is  repenting  at  his  leisure.  3.  Little  is 
achieved  through  deceit.  4.  A  piece  of  the  ceiling  fell;  what 
caused  it  to  come  to  grief  I  cannot  conceive.  5.  Neither  can 
either  of  the  plasterers,  though  I  besieged  them  with  questions. 
6.    I  shall  soon  receive  from  them  a  receipted  bill. 

Nobody    misspells    change,    and    there    are   few    simpler 
sujBfixes  than  able.     But  does  change  +  able  make  changeable 


104  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

or  changahle?  What  an  easy  word  is  write.  Add  er  to  it, 
and  then  what  do  you  have  —  writer  or  writter?  Joints  are 
trouble-spots;  for  frequently  they  mean  the  doubling,  or 
changing,  or  omitting,  of  a  letter.  Word-joinery  is  learned 
mainly  through  observation,  but  there  are  a  few  rules  which 
every  one  should  know.  As  useful  as  any  is  the  rule  for  add- 
ing sufl&xes  to  words  ending  in  silent  e,  for  such  words  are 
very  numerous  and  also  very  troublesome. 

Silent  e  is  usually  kept  before  a  suffix  beginning  with  a  conso- 
nant, and  dropped  before  a  suffix  beginning  with  a  vowel, 
but  words  ending  in  ce  or  ge  retain  the  e  before  a  suffix  begin- 
ning with  a  or  o.  Words  ending  in  ie  drop  the  e  and  change 
the  i  to  y  before  the  suffix  ing. 

Safe  -{-  ty  makes  safety,  for  the  suffix  begins  with  a  con- 
sonant. Hope  -f-  ing  makes  hoping y  for  the  suffix  begins 
with  a  vowel.  But  notice  +  able  makes  noticeable;  for 
though  the  suffix  begins  with  a  vowel,  that  vowel  is  a,  and 
the  parent  word  ends  in  ce.  Likewise  courage  -|-  ous  makes 
courageous;  for  the  parent  word  ends  in  ge  and  the  suffix 
begins  with  o.  Die  +  i^g  makes  dying,  the  final  silent  e 
being  dropped  and  the  i  changed  to  y  before  the  suffix  ing. 
Here  are  additional  words  illustrating  how  the  rule  works: 

positive  -|-  ly  =  positively.     (Suffix  begins  with  a  consonant.) 
engage  +  ment  =  engagement.  (Suffix  begins  with  a  consonant.) 
dine  +  ing  =  dining.    (Suffix  begins  with  a  vowel.) 
write  +  ing  =  writing.    (Suffix  begins  with  a  vowel.) 
peace  +  able  =  peaceable.     (Word   ends   in   ce;   suffix  begins 

with  a.) 
advantage  -|-  ous  =  advantageous.     (Word  ends  in  ge;    suffix 

begins  with  o.) 
vie  +  ing  =  vying.    (Word  ends  in  ie;   suffix  is  ing.) 

Notice  that  usually  occurs  twice  in  the  rule.  This  means 
that  there  are  exceptions,  though  they  are  few  in  comparison 


DRILL  EXERCISES  105 

with  the  total  number  of  words  concerned.  Singeing  and 
dyeing  retain  the  e  to  distinguish  them  from  singing  and 
dying.  Trulyy  duly,  awful,  wholly,  argument,  and  judgment 
are  other  important  exceptions.  But  these  words,  for- 
tunately, are  seldom  misspelled. 


Learn  the  rule  so  thoroughly  that  you  can  write  it  word  for 
word  and  give  the  exceptions.  Be  sure  that  in  giving  a  rule  for 
spelling  you  do  not  misspell  any  words. 

Be  prepared  to  explain  the  meaning  of  suffix,  vowel,  and 
consonant. 

3 

Do  the  following  tasks  in  word-joinery.  Explain  in  paren- 
thesis how  the  rule  applies. 

love  +  able  =  come  +  ing  =  amaze  +  ment  = 

courage  +  ous  =       bone  +  y  =  sale  +  able  = 

nine  +  ty  =  prove  +  ing  =  tie  +  ing  = 


Write  again  the  complete  rule  for  adding  suffixes  to  words 
ending  in  silent  e. 

Do  the  following  tasks  in  word- joinery.  In  each  case  ex- 
plain in  parenthesis  how  the  rule  applies. 

positive  +  ly  =  plane  +  ing  =  lie  +  ing  = 

service  +  able  =  nine  +  teen  =  change  +  able  = 

advertise  +  ment  =  advertise  +  ing  =  conceive  +  able  = 

arrange  +  ing  =  arrange  +  ment  =  move  +  able  = 

Show  that  each  of  tJie  following  is  an  exception  to  the  rule: 
truly,  duly,  wholly,  awful,  judgment,  argument,  singeing, 
dyeing. 


106  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 


PUNCTUATION 


Rule. — The  comma  is  sometimes  necessary  to  set  ofif  words 
or  groups  of  words  when  th^  interrupt  the  thought  or  the 
grammatical  sequence. 

This  is  a  broad  rule  covering  many  cases.  It  cannot  be 
followed  blindly;  judgment  must  be  exercised.  Some  in- 
terruptions are  so  slight  that  they  do  not  call  for  punctua- 
tion. Here  are  a  few  examples  of  sentences  requiring 
commas : 

1.  We  think,  gentlemen,  that  we  have  proved  our  point. 

The  word  gentlemen  is  "independent  by  address."  It  breaks 
in  upon  the  grammatical  sequence.  Notice  that  two  com- 
mas are  required.  If  the  independent  element  stands  first 
in  the  sentence,  but  one  is  called  for.  Thus  we  write  Tom, 
I  want  to  see  you. 

2.  Peter,  the  youngest  in  the  party,  soon  began  to  lag. 

Here  we  have  a  phrase  in  apposition  coming  between  the 
simple  subject  and  its  verb.  Nearly  all  such  appositives 
are  thus  set  off,  but  not  quite  all.  We  write,  correctly, 
Longfellowy  the  author  of  many  poems,  7vas  a  Harvard  pro- 
fessor. But  we  also  write  The  poet  Longfelloiv  was  a  Harvard 
professor;  for  in  this  sentence  poet  is  used  like  an  adjective, 
and  we  prefer  not  to  separate  it  from  Longfellow,  just  as  we 
would  not  write  The  gentle,  Longfellow. 

8.   At  nine  o'clock,  no  word  having  been  received  from  head- 
quarters, we  crossed  the  river. 

In  this  sentence  no  word  having  been  received  from  head- 
quarters is  a  participial  phrase  in  "absolute  construction,'* 
as  it  is  called.  It  interrupts  the  simple  sentence  At  nine 
o'clock  we  crossed  the  river.  It  is  a  bit  of  explanation  thrown 
in  parenthetically. 


DRILL  EXERCISES  107 

4.  This,  moreover,  would  take  too  much  time. 

Moreover  is  but  one  of  many  expressions  —  for  example 
however,  indeed,  no  doubt,  of  course,  on  the  contrary,  neverthe- 
less —  which  have  a  way  of  slipping  in  between  subject  and 
verb  and  between  verb  and  object. 

5.  Yoke  pond,  I  am  inclined  to  believe,  is  my  favorite  vaca- 

tion spot. 

Here  we  find  a  complete  sentence,  /  am  inclined  to  believe, 
introduced  between  yond  and  the  predicate  is,  though  if  we 
were  analyzing  the  sentence,  we  should  explain  that  the 
object  of  to  believe  is  Yoke  pond  is  my  favorite  vacation  spot, 

1 

Punctuate  the  following: 

1.  Do  you  think  sir  that  I  can  do  it?  2.  He  gave  I  am  told 
all  that  he  had.  3.  The  range  of  the  bee  unless  urged  by 
hunger  is  about  two  miles.  4.  If  any  man  doubt  my  sin- 
cerity and  some  may  doubt  it  I  will  try  to  satisfy  him.  5. 
Neptune  seeing  the  Greeks  hard  pressed  came  to  their  assistance. 

6.  This  book  if  you  are  willing  I  will  take  home  with   me. 

7.  A  single  failure  however  does  not  mean  defeat.  8.  It  is 
but  a  little  land  barren  and  rocky  and  looks  to  the  northeast. 
9.  June  30  the  first  day  of  vacation  seemed  ages  away.  10. 
The  following  day  the  weather  being  fine  we  made  good 
progress. 

Rule.  —  The  comma  is  placed  after  a  dependent  clause 
standing  first  in  a  sentence. 

Example:  When  you  are  ready,  let  me  know. 

The  purpose  of  this  rule  is  to  show  the  reader,  by  means 
of  the  comma,  where  the  dependent  element  ends  and  the 
principal  element  begins.  Sometimes,  it  is  true,  a  sentence 
is  perfectly  clear  even  though  this  rule  is  not  observed; 
yet  so  frequently  is  the  comma  an  aid  to  rapid  reading  that 


108  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

it  is  well  for  the  young  writer  to  form  the  habit  of  always 
setting  off  the  dependent  clause  when  it  comes  first.  But 
there  is  one  important  exception.  Noun  clauses  are  classed 
as  dependent.  They  may  be  used  as  subjects,  and  usually 
it  is  not  well  to  separate  subject  and  predicate.  Therefore 
when  a  noun  clause  serving  as  subject  stands  first,  it  is 
seldom  necessary  to  set  it  off.  In  the  sentence  What  had 
happened  was  soon  explained,  the  clause  What  had  happened 
serves  as  subject.  A  comma  after  happened  is  unnecessary. 
Study  the  following,  asking  yourself  in  each  case  whether 
taking  out  a  comma  or  putting  one  in  would  add  clearness. 

//  anyone  should  ask  pou,  tell  him  the  truth. 

While  we  were  eating,  one  of  our  company  stood  guard. 

How  we  could  get  across  the  river  was  a  puzzling  matter. 


Pick  out  the  dependent  clauses.  Punctuate  the  sentences. 
Try  to  show  that  placing  a  comma  after  the  dependent  clause 
helps  the  reader  to  grasp  the  meaning  quickly. 

1.  As  he  was  passing  by  the  door  opened  suddenly.  2, 
While  we  were  eating  threatening  clouds  were  darkening  the 
sky.  3.  As  soon  as  he  had  left  Portia  sent  a  messenger  to 
Padua.  4.  When  the  fish  is  nibbling  the  float  goes  under. 
5.  After  the  bottom  was  nailed  on  the  boards  were  sawed  off 
even  wfth  the  sides.  6.  As  you  know  the  earth  turns  on  its 
axis  daily.  7.  While  a  thousand  candle-power  firefly  flitting 
up  and  down  a  street  would  be  cheaper  than  an  equivalent 
number  of  electric  lights  the  insect  would  not  be  a  complete 
success.  8.  Unless  they  begin  a  sentence  the  words  oh  and  ah 
do  not  require  capitals.  9.  When  pianos  tables  or  other  heavy 
pieces  of  furniture  are  to  be  moved  about  the  rooms  it  is  better 
to  get  behind  and  push  instea^jj  of  pulling.  10.  As  the  thin 
cables  streamed  upward  and  over  the  sheave-wheels  above 
the  shaft  and  down  to  the  reeling-drums  I  looked  at  the  men 


DRILL  EXERCISES  109 

about  me  and  felt  a  sudden  mortification  at  the  clean  blue  of  my 
overalls  and  the  bright  polish  of  my  pick  and  shovel. 

Rule.  —  The  comma  is  sometimes  necessary,  but  not  often, 
after  a  phrase  standing  first  in  a  sentence. 

Nothing  is  gained  by  setting  off  simple  phrases  such  as 
are  found  in  the  following  sentences: 

Behind  the  tent  was  a  grove  of  trees. 
In  the  afternoon  we  went  shopping. 

But  occasionally  when  a  phrase  is  very  long,  perhaps  con- 
taining a  clause,  a  comma  to  mark  its  end  is  an  aid  to  clear- 
ness. Occasionally  a  phrase  containing  a  participle  or  an 
infinitive,  or  one  ending  with  a  preposition,  really  needs 
setting  off  lest  the  reader  take  it  for  granted,  for  an  instant, 
that  some  word  farther  along  in  the  sentence  is  the  object 
of  the  participle,  the  infinitive,  or  the  preposition.  In  each 
of  the  following  sentences,  for  example,  the  comma  is  un- 
doubtedly of  some  service  to  the  reader. 

To  begin  with,  John  proved  an  unsatisfactory  cook. 

Having  gone  so  far  that  it  seemed  a  pity  to  turn  back,  they  de- 
cided to  push  on. 

After  all,  the  dinner  was  a  great  success. 

Admitting  all  that  you  say,  we  still  feel  that  the  boys  were  not 
wholly  to  blame. 

The  signal  having  been  given,  we  scrambled  out  of  the  trench 
and  rushed  ahead. 


Each  of  the  following  sentences  begins  with  a  phrase.  Which 
of  the  phrases  do  you  think  should  be  followed  by  a  comma? 

1.  In  the  confusion  that  followed  Ben  Jones  was  forgotten. 
2.  Crossing  the  river  by  the  new  stone  bridge  we  were  soon  in 
the  heart  of  the  city.  3.  Admitting  all  that  you  say  we  feel 
nevertheless     that    the     wrong     was     unintentional.     4.    Soon 


110  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

after  the  workmen  came  to  repair  the  damage.  5.  By  the 
way  the  mail  arrives  at  seven.  6.  Not  long  after  the  door 
of  the  coach  was  thrown  open  and  a  masked  robber  appeared. 
7.  For  the  purpose  of  helping  those  who  do  not  understand 
please  explain  the  problem  again.  8.  The  night  before  he  had 
said  that  there  was  no  danger.  9.  Having  arranged  for  our 
seats  at  the  table  we  went  in  search  of  our  staterooms.  10. 
Staying  at  home  because  you  do  not  care  to  go  is  not  like  stay- 
ing at  home  because  you  cannot  go.  11.  Every  possible  care 
having  been  taken  to  avoid  accidents  we  did  not  feel  at  all  to 
blame.  12.  In  the  meanwhile  Sir  Lancelot  of  the  Lake  still 
lay  asleep  under  the  apple  tree. 


COURSE  IV 

COMPOSITION 

Explaining 

Simple  exercises  in  exposition 

DRILL 

Pronunciation 

Correct  sound  of  a,  o,  and  other  vowels 

Spelling 

Adding  suffixes  to  words  ending  in  a  consonant 

Punctuation 

The  colon 

Ways  of  punctuating  enumerations 

The  interrogation  point 

The  exclamation  point 

The  apostrophe 


EXPLAINING 

"Which  way  to  the  railroad  station?" 

The  busy  traffic  officer  jerks  a  thumb  over  his  shoulder, 
holds  up  three  fingers,  then  points  full  arm  to  his  left. 

"Thanks,"  you  shout  as  your  car  shoots  ahead.  The 
wordless  message  is  as  clear  as  if  he  had  taken  time  to  say, 
"Straight  ahead  for  three  blocks,  sir,  then  turn  to  your 
right."  Practice  has  made  him  both  quick  and  accurate  in 
giving  directions.     You  covet  his  ability. 

The  farmer  who  obligingly  stops  his  horses  to  answer 
your  question  is  more  deliberate  than  the  traffic  officer.  He 
may  even  trace  a  rough  map  of  the  region,  marking  out  in 
the  sand  with  the  butt  of  his  whip  each  road  and  cross- 
road, dotting  in  here  and  there  the  noticeable  landmarks, 
and  warning  against  possible  mistakes.  Before  he  returns  to 
his  plow,  everything  has  been  made  as  clear  as  his  furrow  is 
straight.  You  envy  the  farmer.  For  it  is  probable  that  you 
have  felt  more  than  once  that  most  disagreeable  sensation 
which  comes  when  it  flashes  upon  you,  a  moment  too  late, 
that  you  have  carelessly  misdirected  a  stranger;  and  very 
likely  you  know  through  bitter  experience  what  it  means  to 
tramp  a  weary  mile  or  two  in  vain,  all  because  some  one  who 
tried  to  tell  you  the  way  "got  you  all  mixed  up."  It  is  not 
an  easy  matter  to  give  accurate  directions  so  worded  as  to 
be  readily  understood. 

EXERCISE  1 

Write  out  brief  yet  complete  directions  for  finding  at  least 
two  places  or  things  suggested  by  the  list  below.     In  a  pre- 

113 


114  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

liminary  sentence  explain  where  you  are  at  the  time  you  give 
the  directions,  and  to  whom  they  are  given  —  a  child,  a  stranger, 
or  some  member  of  your  family  who  frequently  loses  his  way. 

1.    The  post-office.     2.   The  railroad  station.     3.    The  police 

station.     4.  A  certain  church.     5.  Your  home.     6.  Farmer 's 

house.  7.  A  certain  doctor's  office.  8.  A  fire  alarm  box. 
9.  A  certain  counter  in  a  large  department  store.  10.  A 
certain  book  in  a  public  library.  11.  Some  small  article  which 
you  wish  forwarded  to  you  from  your  home.  12.  A  leak  in 
a  boat.  13.  A  certain  bird's-nest.  14.  A  favorite  nook  in  a 
city  park.  15.  A  certain  pool  in  a  stream.  16.  A  shack  in 
the  woods.  17.  A  place  where  arbutus,  or  some  other  flower, 
grows.  18.  A  treasure  which  you  may  imagine  that  you  have 
cunningly  hidden. 

Here  are  a  few  hints:  (1)  Use  your  imagination.  Put 
yourself  in  the  place  of  the  person  whom  you  are  addressing. 
What  will  this  person,  a  mere  child,  perhaps,  be  likely  to 
misunderstand  if  you  do  not  make  things  very  clear? 
(2)  Employ  freely  such  guiding  words  as  first,  next,  a  little 
beyond  this  turn,  keeping  the  river  on  your  left.  Don't  use 
somewheres;  there  is  no  such  word.  (3)  If  you  can  make 
directions  clearer  through  a  simple  drawing,  by  all  means 
include  one. 

EXERCISE  2 

Write  answers  to  one  or  more  of  the  following  questions  — 
05  many  as  you  can  in  the  time  allotted.  Come  to  class  pre- 
pared to  answer  orally  at  least  two  more. 

1.  Why  are  you  attending  school?  2.  What  are  the  main 
reasons  why  pupils  leave  school  before  graduating?     3.    What 

are  the  main  causes  for  tardiness?     4.    In  what  ways  is a 

difficult  study  for  you?  5.  Of  what  use  to  a  business  man  is 
a  good  command  of  English?  6.  Why  is  it  better  not  to  have 
the  long  vacation  come  in  wintertime?  7.  What  makes  a 
dollar  bill  worth  anything?    8.    Why  are  checks  so  commonly 


EXPLAINING  115 

used  instead  of  money?  9.  Why  does  the  government  make 
you  put  a  stamp  on  every  letter?  10.  Why  are  wages  higher 
in  wartime?  11.  What  would  be  an  ideal  location  for  a  mill 
manufacturing  cotton  cloth?  12.  What  are  the  principal  com- 
mercial advantages  of  any  one  of  the  following  cities:  New 
York,  New  Orleans,  Seattle,  San  Francisco,  St.  Louis?  13.  Of 
what  use  are  city  parks?  14.  Why  are  there  apt  to  be  cases 
of  typhoid  in  the  fall  after  people  return  from  summer  vacation 
trips?  15.  Why  is  sleeping  in  the  open  air  beneficial?  16. 
Why  is  a  man  with  poor  teeth  an  undesirable  soldier?  17. 
W^hat  are  some  of  the  common  causes  of  poverty?  18.  What 
are  some  of  the  ways  in  which  a  man  who  never  breaks  a  law 
may  be,  nevertheless,  a  poor  citizen?  19.  What  are  some  of 
the  ways  in  which  boys  and  girls  may  help  to  make  the  city 
in  which  they  live  a  better  city?  20.  What  are  some  of  the 
advantages  in  opening  the  doors  of  a  nation  to  people  from 
other  countries? 

Since  this  is  a  difficult  exercise,  far  more  so  than  at  first 
appears,  be  sure  to  go  about  it  in  the  right  way.     Here  are 

suggestions : 

1.  Do  not  attempt  too  much.  It  will  be  better  to  answer 
a  single  question  well  than  to  answer  several  carelessly. 

2.  Think  before  you  begin  to  write.  Get  everything 
clear  in  your  own  mind  before  attempting  to  explain  to 
others. 

3.  Write  as  if  to  one  who  does  not  grasp  things  readily. 
Usually  it  is  best  to  begin  with  what  is  simple,  easy  to  un- 
derstand, and  work  up  to  what  is  difficult.  Illustrations  help 
wonderfully.  For  example,  in  telling  about  the  convenience 
of  paying  by  check,  you  might  show  how  troublesome  it 
would  be  in  some  particular  case  if  a  purchaser  could  not 
pay  by  check. 

4.  Watch  your  English.  Do  not  write  The  reason  is 
because.  A  better  form  is  The  reason  is  thaty  or  The  reason  is 
as  follows,  or  This  is  the  reason.     Probably  you  will  need 


ne:  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

to  employ  one  or  two  sentences  containing  enumerations. 
On  page  138  the  correct  way  of  pmictuating  an  enumeration 
is  explained. 

EXERCISE   3 

Write  answers  to  as  many  of  the  following  questions  as  you 
can  in  the  time  allotted,  and  come  to  class  prepared  to  answer 
orally  several  more. 

1.  What  causes  day  and  night?  2.  What  causes  thunder? 
3.  What  things  aflfect  the  climate  of  a  place?  4.  What  causes 
leaves  to  change  their  color  in  the  fall?  5.  How  does  a  cricket 
"chirp"?  6.  What  causes  tides?  7.  Why  will  a  cambric 
needle  float  if  rubbed  with  an  oily  cloth?  8.  Why  does  moisture 
sometimes  appear  on  the  outside  of  a  pitcher  of  water?  9. 
Why  does  the  sun  look  larger  when  near  the  horizon?  10. 
Why  is  the  sky  blue?  11.  Why  is  it  easier  to  lift  a  weight  when 
it  is  under  water?  12.  Why  does  the  cook  use  baking  powder? 
13.  What  keeps  an  iron  steamship  from  sinking?  14.  Why  is 
it  so  difficult  to  fill  an  empty  bottle  held  in  a  stream  of  water? 
15.  Why  do  steamers  crossing  the  Atlantic  take  a  route  far- 
ther south  in  summer  than  in  winter?  16.  How  do  you  know 
that  the  center  of  the  earth  is  hot?  17.  Most  people  live  on 
plains;  would  it  be  better  if  the  earth  were  without  mountains? 
18.  What  makes  the  locomotive  "puff"?  19.  What  causes 
freckles?  20.  Why  is  the  air  in  a  large  city  purer  at  night 
than  in  the  daytime? 

Before  beginning,  read  again  the  notes  which  accompany 
the  preceding  exercise.  And  here  is  an  additional  hint: 
If  the  explanation  can  be  made  clearer  through  some  simple 
sketch,  make  one,  even  though  you  are  not  very  skillful  at 
drawing.  For  example,  in  explaining  what  causes  day  and 
night,  draw  a  diagram  of  the  earth  and  the  sun. 

EXERCISE  4 

"Joe  Finneran,  pitching  in  a  lost  cause,  got  away  poorly 
and  then  settled  down  to  do  fine  work.     His  support  failed  him 


EXPLAINING  117 

in  the  third  and  fourth  innings  to  the  extent  of  three  runs  which 
should  not  have  been  scored,  a  muff  by  Fournier  making  two 
possible  and  a  poor  peg  by  Pratt  presenting  the  home  team  with 
another.  A  pass  to  Shotton  in  the  first  inning  sent  the  Senators 
on  their  way  to  victory.  He  advanced  on  Foster's  out  and 
scored  on  Judge's  double  to  left.  Joe  completed  the  circuit 
when  Milan  lashed  a  double  to  right,  and  Schulte  chased  Milan 
across  with  a  single  to  right." 

Do  you  understand.'^  It  depends  upon  whether  you  are 
familiar  with  baseball  "lingo."  Read  such  an  account  to 
a  young  American  in  a  French  hospital,  and  the  proba- 
bilities are  that  he  will  forget  all  pains  while  his  imagina- 
tion pictures  with  remarkable  accuracy  the  "plays"  in 
which  Joe  and  Pratt  and  the  rest  figure.  But  he  would 
make  sorry  work  of  a  fashion  review.  Just  imagine  him 
trying  to  follow  the  nurse  as  she  reads  from  the  Delineator 
or  some  other  magazine  written  principally  for  women! 
Technical  terms  are  indeed  puzzling,  for  they  do  not  pro- 
vide the  imagination  with  sufficient  material  out  of  which 
to  make  mind-pictures.  And  technical  terms  are  often 
very  difficult  to  explain,  as  you  will  find  in  performing  the 
following  task. 

Explain  all  the  terms  in  the  quoted  passage,  or  else  explain 
three  or  four  terms  suggested  below. 

1.  Terms  commonly  employed  in  tennis  or  some  other  game; 

for  example,  love-thirty,  forward  pass,  foul  ball,  off-side 
play,  king-row. 

2.  Terms  you  have  become  familiar  with  through  reading 

war  news  or  talking  with  soldiers;    for  example,   over 
the  top,  ensign,  camouflage,  gas  mask. 

3.  Terms  you  have  become  acquainted  with  in  your  early 

attempts  to  earn  money  by  working  in  a  store,  an  office, 
or  a  factory. 

4.  Terms  that  often  puzzle  men  folks,  such  as  expressions 

employed  by  cooks,  dressmakers,  or  milliners. 

5.  Terms  employed  by  Boy  Scouts  or  by  Campfire  Girls. 


118  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

Take  plenty  of  time  for  this  task.  Talk  slowly,  and  watch 
your  audience  to  see  that  they  are  following  you.  Be  care- 
ful, in  explaining,  not  to  introduce  still  other  technical 
words.  If  you  can  make  yourself  clearer  by  means  of  simple 
drawings,  use  the  blackboard.  And  watch  your  English. 
Don't  begin  a  sentence  after  this  fashion:  A  foul  ball  is 
when,  etc. 

EXERCISE  6 

'"Why,  sure,  honey,  I'll  tell  you  jess  how  to  do  it.  You 
takes  as  much  meal  as  you  wants,  mix  in  some  flour  an'  three 
or  four  aigs,  put  in  milk  'nough  to  make  it  thick  as  it  oughter 
be,  don't  forgit  a  pinch  or  two  o'  salt,  and  a  good-sized  lump 
of  butter;  drop  in  a  little  sugar,  too,  den  fill  de  little  pans  an* 
put  *em  in  de  oven  —  till  dey's  done,  honey." 

That  is  the  way,  according  to  the  Newark  Call,  that  the 
old  Southern  "mammies"  used  to  tell  how  they  made  their 
delicious  corncakes.  The  "mammies,"  dear  souls,  were 
natural-born  cooks,  but  they  were  not  perfect  in  the  art  of 
making  things  clear.     Mr.  White  is  somewhat  more  skillful. 

Read  and  study  Mr.  White's  directions  for  building  a  camp 
fire.     Prepare  to  answer  the  questions  which  follow  it. 

How  to  Build  a  Camp  Fire  * 

Your  fireplace  you  will  build  of  two  green  logs  laid  side  by 
side.  The  fire  is  to  be  made  between  them.  They  should 
converge  slightly,  in  order  that  the  utensils  to  be  rested  across 
them  may  be  of  various  sizes.  If  your  vicinity  yields  flat 
stones,  they  build  up  even  better  than  logs  —  unless  they  hap- 
pen to  be  of  granite.  Granite  explodes  most  disconcertingly. 
Poles  sharpened,  driven  upright  into  the  ground,  and  then 
pressed  down  to  slant  over  the  fireplace,  will  hold  your  kettle 
a  suitable  height  above  the  blaze 

Fuel  should  be  your  next  thought.     A  roll  of  birch  bark 

*  From  The  Forest.  Used  by  courteous  permission  of  the  publishers, 
Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 


EXPLAINING  119 

first  of  all.  Then  some  of  the  small,  dry,  resinous  branches 
that  stick  out  from  the  trunks  of  medium-sized  pines,  living  or 
dead.  Finally,  the  wood  itself.  If  you  are  merely  cooking 
supper,  and  have  no  thought  for  a  warmth-fire  or  a  friendship- 
fire,  I  should  advise  you  to  stick  to  the  dry  pine  branches, 
helped  out,  in  the  interest  of  coals  for  frying,  by  a  little  dry 
maple  or  birch.  If  you  need  more  of  a  blaze,  you  will  have  to 
search  out,  fell,  and  split  a  standing  dead  tree.  This  is  not 
at  all  necessary.  I  have  traveled  many  weeks  in  the  woods 
without  using  a  more  formidable  implement  than  a  one-pound 
hatchet.  Pile  your  fuel  —  a  complete  supply,  all  you  are 
going  to  need  —  by  the  side  of  your  already  improvised  fire- 
place. But,  as  you  value  your  peace  of  mind,  do  not  fool 
with  matches. 

It  will  be  a  little  difficult  to  turn  your  mind  from  the  con- 
cept of  fire,  to  which  all  these  preparations  have  compellingly 
led  it,  —  especially  as  a  fire  is  the  one  cheerful  thing  your 
weariness  needs  the  most  at  this  time  of  day,  —  but  you  must 
do  so.  Leave  everything  just  as  it  is,  and  unpack  your  pro- 
visions. 

First  of  all,  rinse  your  utensils,  hang  your  tea-pail,  with  the 
proper  quantity  of  water,  from  one  slanting  pole,  and  your 
kettle  from  the  other.  Salt  the  water  in  the  latter  receptacle. 
Peel  your  potatoes,  if  you  have  any;  open  your  little  provision 
sacks;  puncture  your  tin  cans,  if  you  have  any;  slice  your 
bacon;  clean  your  fish;  pluck  your  birds;  mix  your  dough  or 
batter;  spread  your  table  tinware  on  your  tarpaulin  or  a  sheet 
of  birch  bark;  cut  a  kettle-lifter;  see  that  everything  you  are 
going  to  need  is  within  direct  reach  of  your  hand  as  you  squat 
on  your  heels  before  the  fireplace.     Now  light  your  fire. 

The  civilized  method  is  to  build  a  fire  and  then  to  touch  a 
match  to  the  completed  structure.  If  well  done,  in  a  grate 
or  stove,  this  works  beautifully.  Only  in  the  woods  you  have 
no  grate.  The  only  sure  way  is  as  follows:  Hold  a  piece  of 
birch  bark  in  your  hand.  Shelter  your  match  all  you  know 
how.  When  the  bark  has  caught,  lay  it  in  your  fireplace,  assist 
it  with  more  bark,  and  gradually  build  up,  twig  by  twig,  stick 
by  stick,  from  the  first  pin-point  of  flame,  all  the  fire  you  are 


120  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

going  to  need.  It  will  not  be  much.  The  little  hot  blaze 
rising  between  the  parallel  logs  directly  against  the  aluminum 
of  your  utensils  will  do  the  business  in  very  short  order.  In 
fifteen  minutes  at  the  most  your  meal  is  ready.  And  you  have 
been  able  to  attain  to  hot  food  thus  quickly  because  you  were 
prepared. 

In  case  of  very  wet  weather  the  affair  is  altered  somewhat. 
If  the  rain  has  just  commenced,  do  not  stop  to  clear  out  very 
thoroughly,  but  get  your  tent  up  as  quickly  as  possible,  in 
order  to  preserve  an  area  of  comparatively  dry  ground.  But 
if  the  earth  is  already  soaked,  you  had  best  build  a  bonfire  to 
dry  out  by,  while  you  cook  over  a  smaller  fire  a  little  distance 
removed,  leaving  the  tent  until  later.  Or  it  may  be  well  not 
to  pitch  the  tent  at  all,  but  to  lay  it  across  slanting  supports 
at  an  angle  to  reflect  the  heat  against  the  ground. 

It  is  no  joke  to  light  a  fire  in  the  rain.  An  Indian  can  do  it 
more  easily  than  a  white  man,  but  even  an  Indian  has  more 
trouble  than  the  story-books  acknowledge.  You  will  need 
a  greater  quantity  of  birch  bark,  a  bigger  pile  of  resinous  dead 
limbs  from  the  pine-trees,  and  perhaps  the  heart  of  a  dead  pine 
stub  or  stump.  Then,  with  infinite  patience,  you  may  be  able 
to  tease  the  flame.  Sometimes  a  small  dead  birch  contains  in 
the  waterproof  envelope  of  its  bark  a  species  of  powdery, 
dry  touchwood  that  takes  to  flame  readily.  Still,  it  is  easy 
enough  to  start  a  blaze  —  a  very  fine-looking,  cheerful,  healthy 
blaze;  the  difficulty  is  to  prevent  its  petering  out  the  moment 
your  back  is  turned. 

Stewart  White 

1.  Does  Mr.  White  know  how  to  build  a  camp  fire.'*  2.  Do 
you  think  that  you  could  build  one,  now  that  you  have  been 
told  how?  3.  Has  Mr.  White  forgotten  anything,  or  are  his 
directions  complete?  4.  Are  the  directions  given  in  the  best 
order?  5.  How  did  Mr.  White  determine  what  order  to  fol- 
low? 6.  Is  each  paragraph  devoted  to  some  one  thing?  7. 
Can  you  suggest  appropriate  titles  for  the  different  paragraphs? 
8.  How  many  things  is  the  camper  warned  not  to  do?  9. 
Is  any  word  used  the  meaning  of  which  you  do  not  know? 
,10.   Is  the  account  intended  for  young  people  or  for  grown- 


EXPLAINING  121 

ups?  11.  Can  you  find  sentences  which  a  teacher  might 
criticize?  12.  What  have  you  found  to  like  in  Mr.  White's 
way  of  giving  directions? 

EXERCISE  6 

Nearly  every  one  is  an  expert.  He  can  do  something,  it 
may  be  but  sharpening  a  pencil,  or  tying  a  four-in-hand,  or 
pitching  "curves,"  extremely  well.  What  is  your  specialty? 
Building  a  camp  fire  may  be  entirely  out  of  your  line,  but 
no  doubt  you  do  many  things  much  better  than  Mr.  White 
can  do  them.  In  one  respect,  however,  Mr.  White  is  your 
superior,  no  doubt:  he  is  a  good  teacher.  What  pains  he 
takes,  as  a  teacher  must.  How  carefully  he  plans.  His 
directions  are  arranged  in  the  best  possible  order,  and  he 
unrolls  them  in  such  a  way  that  but  one  thing  at  a  time  re- 
ceives attention.  How  thorough  he  is,  omitting  nothing. 
And  apparently  he  keeps  asking  himself,  "Am  I  making 
this  clear?  What  mistakes  should  I  warn  against?  What 
mistakes  did  I  make  before  I  became  expert?  '*  He  is  a 
good  sportsman,  entering  whole-heartedly  into  the  contest; 
for  it  is  a  contest,  in  which  the  game  is  to  make  everything 
so  clear  that  the  pupil  must  understand. 

Think  over  your  accomplishments.  What  can  you  do? 
Keeping  in  mind  Mr.  White's  method,  prepare  to  tell  the  class 
how  to  do  something.  Stand  near  the  blackboard y  when  giv- 
ing your  talk,  for  you  may  find  it  convenient  to  illustrate  some 
little  point  with  a  rough  sketch.  If  you  fail  to  make  everything 
clear,  questions  will  be  asked,  but  not  until  you  have  completed 
your  talk.  The  following  list  may  help  you  in  selecting  a 
topic. 

1.  Pitching  a  tent.  %.  Starting  an  automobile  or  a  power 
boat.  3.  Installing  an  electric  doorbell.  4.  Loading  a  camera. 
5.  Catching  a  fish  (some  particular  kind).  6.  Taking  off 
and  putting  on  a  tire.  7.  Cleaning  a  gun.  8.  Setting  a  pane 
of   glass.      9.    Applying   "first  aid"    (some  particular   kind  of 


122  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

accident).  10.  Getting  a  crowd  to  attend  a  game.  11.  Getting 
and  managing  a  paper  route.  12.  Training  a  dog.  13.  Set- 
ting a  dinner  table.  14.  Washing  dinner  dishes.  15.  Packing 
a  lunch  basket.  16.  Equipping  and  caring  for  a  kitchen  sink. 
17.  Cleaning  a  living-room.  18.  Making  jelly  or  preserves 
(a  particular  kind).  19.  Using  the  telephone.  20.  Using  a 
railroad  time-table.  21.  Playing  the  game  of  .  22.  Pre- 
paring   a    lesson  in  .      23.    Starting    a    savings    account. 

24.  Trimming  a  Christmas  tree.  25.  Marking  out  a  baseball 
diamond  or  a  tennis  court.     26.    Keeping  a  baseball  score. 

EXERCISE  7 

Write  a  composition,  about  one-third  as  long  as  Mr.  Whitens, 
in  which  you  tell  how  to  do  something.  Draw  from  your  own 
experience,  yet  select  if  possible  from  the  list  given  with  the 
preceding  exercise. 

Here  are  three  suggestions:  (1)  Plan  your  composition  — 
plan  it  by  paragraphs,  one  for  each  of  the  two  or  three  or 
four  divisions  of  your  task.  (2)  Don't  let  getting  started 
bother  you  at  all.  A  polite  introduction  is  not  needed; 
just  begin,  naturally,  as  you  would  if  you  were  talking  to  a 
friend.  (3)  Keep  in  mind  the  purpose  of  your  composition. 
Everything  must  be  made  very  clear,  and  you  must  warn 
against  possible  mistakes. 

EXERCISE  8 

Here  are  the  working  plans  ^  for  a  bird-house.  You  will 
agree  that  they  are  exceptionally  clear  and  complete.  Even 
a  girl,  if  she  has  been  taught  to  use  saw  and  hammer,  should 
be  able  to  make  a  bird-house  that  will  not  fall  apart  during 
the  first  winter.  But  suppose  you  were  asked  to  give  orally 
directions  for  making  this  simple  piece  of  carpentry.  Could 
you  make  them  clear?     Try  it. 

*  From  the  Industrial  and  Applied  Art  Books,  Fourth  Year.  By  per- 
mission of  Atkinson,  Mentzer  &  Company. 


EXPLAINING 


123 


Keeping  the  book  open  so  that  you  may  have  the  drawings  to 
guide  yoUy  give  your  classmates  directions  for  making  a  bird- 
house.  Whenever  you  make  a  slip,  some  one  will  politely  call 
your  attention  to  it. 


FIR-bT 

NMLTHE  E.^CKI|THEN  ADD  ^NOTHLHII  THEN  PUT  ON  ||  KDO  THE  TOP  AND  IT 
TO  THE  SIDE     11  5lDLyTHL  bOTTOM  II  THE.  FI^ONT  Ill5  REAPYTO  PUTUP 


EXERCISE  9 

More  than  once,  no  doubt,  you  have  loitered  before  a 
window  or  door,  fascinated  by  what  busy  people  within 
were  doing.  You  have  watched,  perhaps  from  a  front  porch, 
the  workmen  who  care  for  the  street  in  front  of  your  house, 
or  dig  trenches  for  water  or  gas,  or  erect  telephone  poles 
and  string  wires.  It  is  strange  if  the  house  in  which  you  live 
has  not,  somewhat  recently,  undergone  repairs,  and  no  doubt 
you  occasionally  got  in  the  way  through  your  desire  to  see 


124  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

just  how  the  carpenters  or  the  painters  did  their  work. 
When  away  on  your  summer  vacation,  if  you  were  fortunate 
enough  to  get  away,  you  saw  many  workers  —  fishermen 
drying  their  nets,  it  may  be,  or  men  repairing  a  bridge. 
Perhaps  you  have  at  some  time  visited  a  foundry  or  a  fac- 
tory, and  have  become  famiUar  with  some  Hne  of  industry. 
Finally,  it  may  be  that  you  have  been  yourself  employed  in 
shop  or  store,  where  part  of  your  fun  consisted  in  watching 
at  close  range  skillful  clerks  and  mechanics.  In  one  way 
or  another  you  have  picked  up  through  observation  a 
great  deal  of  information  concerning  how  things  are  done, 
information  which  you  should  be  able  to  pass  along  to 
others. 

Write  a  composition  meriting  one  of  the  following  titles: 
(1)  Watching  to  See  How  It  Is  Done,  (2)  What  I  Learned  by 
Looking  through  a  Window,  (3)  What  the  Workmen  Did, 
(4)  How  Easy  It  Is  when  You  Know  How.  Preface  the 
account  with  a  sentence  or  two  explaining  the  circumstances 
under  which  you  played  the  part  of  observer. 


EXERCISE  10 

Criticize  this  schoolboy  composition,  bearing  in  mind  that 
criticism  includes  pointing  out  the  good  as  well  as  calling  at- 
tention to  the  bad.  Questions  found  at  the  close  of  the  compo- 
sition will  help  you  in  performing  this  task. 

How  to  Make  a  Squirrel  Trap 

The  material  needed  for  this  trap  is  11  feet  of  6"  X  }''  pine 
or  spruce,  also  two  hinges  and  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  3  in. 
nails. 

First  saw  off  four  pieces  2  ft.  long  and  one  6  in.  square.  Next 
make  a  piece  in  the  form  of  Fig  II.  Three  inches  from  the 
bottom  and  side  of  this  piece  bore  a  i  in.  hole,  through  which 
passes  the  trigger. 


EXPLAINING 


125 


Then  nail  Ihe  long  pieces  together  in  a  box  shape,  and  also 
the  tall  piece  on  one  end  of  the  other  long  piece.  On  the  other 
end  of  the  long  piece  screw  down  the  two  hinges  and  fasten 
them  to  the  tall  piece. 

Next  make  a  round,  pointed  stick  eight  inches  long  which 
will  pass  easily  through  the  hole.  In  the  stick  make  a  notch 
about  two  inches  from  the  end.  Make  a  notch  in  the  tall 
piece  the  same  size.  Make  another  round  stick  3  in.  long  and 
taper  the  ends.     Fasten  a  string  on  the  end  of  the  cover  and 


Tiq.I 


bring  it  through  a  small  hole  or  notch  in  the  top  of  the  tall 
piece,  then  tie  it  in  the  middle  of  the  short  round  stick. 

To  set  the  trap,  stick  a  piece  of  apple  or  other  bait  which 
a  squirrel  likes,  then  pull  the  cover  up  and  put  the  small  piece 
in  the  two  notches  and  the  trap  is  set.  It  is  simple  in  con- 
struction but  is  sure  to  work. 

Is  the  composition  well  planned,  with  the  items  given  in 
the  best  order?  Are  you  satisfied  with  the  paragraphing? 
Have  any  necessary  directions  been  overlooked?  Are  the 
directions  given  sufficiently  clear  —  so  clear  that  a  boy  of 
average  ability  could  follow  them?  Can  you  pick  out  one 
or  two  sentences  which  might  be  made  clearer,  or  expressed 
in  better  English?  Do  you  like  the  concluding  sentence? 
Would  the  drawings  be  of  real  service  to  a  boy  making 
a  trap  ?  Would  the  directions  be  clear  without  the 
drawings? 


126  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

EXERCISE  11 

Give  diredionsy  orally  or  in  writing  as  the  instructor  may 
wish,  for  making  something.  The  following  list  is  but  sug- 
gestive; you  need  not  choose  from  it  unless  you  wish.  But  the 
directions  must  be  all  yours,  not  second-hand;  they  must  be 
based  upon  your  own  experience. 

Before  beginning,  suppose  you  say  to  yourself,  "There 

are  certain  failings  of  mine,  namely and ,   which  I 

must  guard  against." 

1.  Something  made  in  the  manual  training,  domestic  science, 
or  domestic  art  department;  for  example  a  T-square,  a  paper 
cutter,  a  napkin  ring,  a  book  case,  an  easel,  a  table,  a  book- 
rest,  an  article  of  wearing  apparel. 

2.  Something  made  in  connection  with  your  activities  as  a 
Boy  Scout,  Campfire  Girl,  or  Red  Cross  worker;  for  example 
a  shelter  tent,  a  shack,  a  piece  of  shack  furniture,  a  camp  bed, 
a  camp  stove,  a  rustic  seat,  a  tree-top  house,  a  trap,  an 
emergency  stretcher,  a  diving  board,  a  boat  landing,  a  com- 
fort kit  bag. 

3.  Something  that  you  have  made  at  home;  for  example 
a  window-ledge  flower-box,  an  aquarium,  a  cozy  corner,  a 
linen-chest,  a  chicken  coop,  a  dog  kennel,  a  work  bench. 

4.  A  toy  or  plaything  for  yourself  or  others;  for  example 
a  willow  whistle,  a  sling-shot,  a  jack-o'-lantern,  a  kite,  a  see- 
saw or  other  piece  of  playground  apparatus,  a  double  ripper,  a 
cart  for  little  Tommy. 

5.  Something  to  serve  as  a  gift  for  birthday  or  Christmas. 

6.  Something  you  have  made  as  a  wage-earner  in  factory, 
shop,  or  store. 

EXERCISE   12 

Here  is  a  composition  to  study.  Is  every  part  of  it  clear? 
Does  it  tell  all  that  you  care  to  know?  Is  the  information 
given  in  the  best  order,  or  would  it  have  been  better  to  begin 
with  the  weight  and  size  of  the  ball,  then  tell  about  the 
cover,  and  work  down  step  by  step  to  the  rubber  sphere  at 


EXPLAINING  127 

the  center?     Can  you  find  places  where  the  writer  explains 
not  only  what  is  done  but  why  it  is  done? 

How  Base  Balls  Are  Made 

At  the  entrance  to  the  factory  you  are  confronted  by  a  sign 
which  informs  you,  courteously  yet  positively,  that  you  cannot 
go  in.  Courteously  yet  positively  the  gentleman  back  of  the 
oflSce  window  informs  you  that  the  sign  is  truthful.  So  there 
you  are,  halted  on  the  threshold  of  a  great  mystery.  Ap- 
parently it  does  not  matter  in  the  least  whether  you  are  presi- 
dent of  a  baseball  league  or  merely  president  of  the  United 
States;  when  you  have  reached  the  office  window,  which  is 
very  near  the  front  door,  you  have  reached  the  end  of  the  line. 

Part  of  the  mystery,  however,  may  be  solved  notwithstanding 
that  forbidding  sign.  Trade  magazines  in  which  sporting  goods 
are  advertised  tell  nearly  all  there  is  to  know  about  the  materials 
used  and  something  of  the  process  of  manufacture.  You 
can  saw  a  ball  in  two  and  discover  things  for  yourself.  Finally, 
the  gentleman  at  the  office  window,  though  he  cannot  break 
a  rule  of  the  establishment,  is  extremely  obliging,  apparently 
willing  to  answer  any  reasonable  number  of  questions  —  pro- 
vided you  do  not  ask  the  wrong  ones.  From  all  the  sources 
of  information  available,  this  is  what  you  eventually  learn: 

The  ball  is  built  round  a  vulcanized  rubber  sphere  precisely  one 
and  three-eighths  inches  in  diameter,  weighing  precisely  an  ounce. 
This  elastic  sphere  supplies  the  ball  with  the  "bounce"  so  neces- 
sary if  the  batsman  is  occasionally  to  have  the  pleasure  of  seeing 
a  "fly"  sail  over  the  center  fielder's  head.  On  the  sphere,  four- 
ply  blue  woolen  yarn  is  wound  very  tightly  till  the  ball  is  about 
one-half  its  final  size.  For  many  years  the  winding  was  done  by 
hand,  but  about  thirty-five  years  ago  a  winding-machine  was  in- 
vented. This  wonderful  device  i^  among  the  guarded  mysteries 
of  the  business.  Think  what  it  has  to  do.  The  yarn  must  be 
wound  very  tightly  over  a  surface  constantly  growing  larger,  and 
the  sphere  must  be  kept  revolving  in  several  directions  to  prevent 
the  forming  of  yarn-ridges.  Can  you  puzzle  out  how  it  is  accom- 
plished? 


128  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

The  next  step  varies,  you  will  learn,  according  to  the  grade  of 
ball  manufactured.  Sometimes  a  leather  cover,  similar  to  the 
outside  cover,  is  sewed  on  by  hand.  Without  some  such  reen- 
forcement  the  terrific  batting  the  ball  receives  might  burst  the 
rubber  sphere  and  even  break  the  windings  of  yarn.  One  manu- 
facturer guards  against  such  a  possibility  by  giving  the  rubber 
sphere  a  cork  center.  If  an  inner  cover  is  not  used,  three-ply 
white  yarn  is  wound  on,  forming  a  layer  about  one- fourth  of  an 
inch  thick,  after  which  the  ball  is  given  a  coat  of  cement  to  make 
it  firm  and  is  put  aside  to  dry.  Next  comes  another  winding  of 
blue  woolen  yarn,  like  the  first,  over  which  there  is  a  thin  winding 
of  strong  cotton  thread.  The  ball  then  receives  another  coating 
of  cement,  and  when  this  is  dry  it  is  ready  for  its  cover  —  tanned 
horsehide,  in  the  better  grades. 

The  peculiar  shape  of  the  two  sections  of  the  cover  is  familiar 
to  every  American  boy.  If  he  has  thought  at  all  about  it,  he 
can  tell  you  why  this  shape  is  better  than  any  other.  He 
knows  where  the  stitches  would  begin  to  rip  if  the  cover  were 
in  sections  similar  to  the  four  usually  made  in  removing  the 
peel  from  an  orange.  Probably  he  does  not  know,  though  he 
may  have  guessed  it,  that  the  cover  is  in  a  semi-raw,  damp 
state  when  it  is  cemented  to  the  ball.  That  is  why  the  cover, 
shrinking  as  it  dries,  fits  so  snugly  and  smoothly. 

The  stitching  is  done  entirely  by  hand.  It  is  strange  that 
men  clever  enough  to  invent  a  winding  machine  have  never 
been  able  to  make  a  machine  to  beat  the  skilled  workman  who, 
using  two  needles,  takes,  according  to  a  well  known  advertise- 
ment, precisely  232  stitches,  "116  red,  no  more;  116  black, 
no  less,"  bringing  the  edges  together  so  accurately,  drawing 
the  strong  cord  so  tightly,  that  the  ball  when  completed  has 
no  rough  seams  nor  wrinkles  to  hurt  the  hand.  There  is  little 
mystery  about  the  number  of  stitches,  however,  for  the  holes 
through  which  the  needles  pass  so  rapidly  are  all  pierced  by 
machine  when  the  covers  are  cut  from  the  hide.  How  the 
cords  are  fastened  when  the  last  stitch  has  been  taken  is  a 
slight  mystery.  "They  are  fastened  on  the  inside,"  you  will 
be  told,  with  a  smile. 

Although  the  process  of  manufacture  is  rapid,  every  step  must 


EXPLAINING  129 

be  closely  watched.  Regulations  specify  that  the  league  ball  must 
weigh  not  less  than  five  nor  more  than  five  and  a  quarter  ounces, 
and  that  the  circumference  must  be  not  less  than  nine  nor  more 
than  nine  and  a  quarter  inches.  To  meet  these  requirements  the 
ball,  during  its  construction,  is  weighed  and  measured  five  times. 
Close  inspection  for  other  matters  is  also  necessary.  A  thin  spot 
in  the  leather,  for  example,  or  a  weak  spot  in  the  stitching,  would 
mean  short  life  to  the  ball;  for  of  all  the  "playthings"  with  which 
Americans  amuse  themselves,  few  must  stand  rougher  treatment. 
No  one  but  a  small  boy  will  tolerate  a  cheap  ball  of  the  ten  cent 
grade  —  a  compressed  sphere  of  cotton  bound  together  with  a 
few  windings  of  thread  and  covered  with  artificial  leather,  easily 
batted  out  of  shape  and  more  easily  ripped;  and  even  the  small 
boy  soon  learns  to  demand  something  better.  As  for  the  grown-up 
professional,  he  has  a  keen  eye  for  every  defect  and  is  satisfied 
with  nothing  but  the  best. 

The  manufacture  of  base  balls  is  about  seventy  years  old,  the 
first  to  establish  the  business  being  Mr.  Harrison  Harwood,  senior 
member  of  H.  Harwood  and  Sons  of  Natick,  Mass.  It  was  Mr. 
Harwood  who  invented  the  two-piece  cover  now  universally  used. 

7/  you  have  ever  visited  a  factory  and  watched  the  making  of 
some  article,  or  if  you  have  ever  taken  something  to  pieces  to 
discover  how  it  was  made,  prepare  to  give  an  account  similar  to 
the  one  you  have  studied. 

EXERCISE  13 

Here  is  a  schoolboy  composition  explaining  how  a  nutmeg 
grater  does  its  work.     Is  it  perfectly  clear? 

A  Nutmeg  Grater 

A  nutmeg  grater  is  usually  made  from  a  piece  of  tin  ranging  from 
two  and  one-half  inches  to  six  inches  in  length  by  one  and  a 
half  inches  in  width,  and  convex  in  shape  with  a  flat  piece  of 
tin  fastened  to  the  sides  of  the  convex  piece,  forming  a  bottom 
to  the  grater.  The  convex  portion  has  holes  punched  through 
from  the  under  side,  leaving  a  very  rough  surface  on  which  the 


130  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

nutmeg  is  rubbed  up  and  down.  The  little  points  on  the  con- 
vex side  (made  by  the  punching  of  the  holes)  catch  and  break 
off  small  particles  of  nutmeg  which  drop  through  holes  into  the 
bottom  of  the  grater.  If  the  grater  is  held  at  an  angle,  the 
little  particles  will  slide  down  to  the  bottom  into  a  dish  or 
whatever  is  under  it. 

Write  a  composition  in  which  you  explain  the  construction 
and  workings  of  some  machine,  instrument,  or  contrivance. 
If  you  can,  make  things  clear  by  means  of  pen  sketches.  Here 
are  suggestions. 

Clothes  reel,  stove  damper,  ash  sifter,  mouse  trap,  thermostat, 
ice  cream  freezer,  meat  grinder,  egg  beater,  vacuum  cleaner, 
cream  whip,  waffle  iron,  kerosene  lamp,  fire  extinguisher,  churn, 
cream  separator,  thermometer,  barometer,  sun  dial,  compass, 
spirit  level,  waterwheel,  hay  rake,  mimeograph,  pencil  sharpener, 
adding  machine,  periscope,  motor  car  clutch,  parachute,  spoon 
hook,  fire  alarm,  canal  lock,  grocer's  scales,  carburetor. 

You  will  have  better  success,  perhaps,  if  you  have  in  mind 
a  definite  purpose.  Imagine  that  you  are  talking  to  some 
one,  a  child,  for  example,  besieging  you  with  questions  con- 
cerning the  thermometer;  or  your  sister  (you  are  teaching 
her  to  drive  a  motor  car),  who  is  mystified  when  you  tell 
her  to  throw  out  the  clutch;  or  a  farmer*s  wife,  to  whom  you 
are  trying  to  sell  a  vacuum  cleaner.  Profit  by  what  you 
learned  through  studying  How  Base  Balls  Are  Made.  Picture 
things;  make  clear  strange  things  through  comparing  them 
to  what  is  familiar  to  all. 


The  exercises  in  this  Course  all  come  under  the  head  of 
what  the  textbooks  call  exposition,  exposition  being  little 
more  than  another  name  for  explanation.  The  composi- 
tion which  follows  is  an  example  of  exposition.  In  it  the 
scraps  of  counsel  scattered  among  the  exercises,  and  a  few 


EXPLAINING  131 

more  whkh  doubtless  have  received  your  attention  in  class- 
room, are  brought  together  and  rearranged  for  final  review. 

The  Art  of  Explaining 

First  of  all,  do  not  for  a  moment  lose  sight  of  what  you  are 
trying  to  accomplish.  You  are  not  trying  to  show  how  well 
you  can  write,  though  good  penmanship  is  a  form  of  courtesy 
which  all  should  cultivate;  nor  are  you  trying  to  show  what 
beautiful  language  you  employ  when  writing  or  talking.  Your 
sole  puqDose  is  to  explain,  to  make  others  understand.  That 
is  the  whole  game. 

In  the  second  place,  remember  that  you  cannot  give  what  you 
do  not  possess.  Whatever  is  not  perfectly  clear  to  you  cannot 
be  made  clear  to  others.  It  is  embarrassing  to  be  interrupted 
by  an  unexpected  question  to  which  you  are  forced  to  reply, 
"I'm  afraid  I  don't  quite  understand  that  myself.  I  thought 
I  did  when  I  began,  but  it  seems  I  didn't."  Getting  every- 
thing clearly  in  mind  before  you  start  is  half  the  battle. 

What  next.f*  Have  a  plan.  Don't  let  the  explanation  tumble 
out;  unroll  it.  By  unrolling  an  explanation  is  meant  display- 
ing but  one  thing  at  a  time.  Finish  one  part  of  the  task  before 
taking  up  the  next.  Because  explanation  takes  so  many  differ- 
ent forms,  it  is  impossible  to  invent  an  arrangement,  or  order 
sequence,  that  will  serve  equally  well  in  all  cases.  Mr.  White, 
in  telling  how  to  build  a  camp  fire,  followed  a  time  sequence. 
He  mentioned  the  things  to  be  done  in  the  order  in  which  they 
should  be  done.  In  telling  of  the  ways  in  which  parks  are 
useful,  it  would  be  well  to  begin  with  simple  ways  such  as  come 
to  mind  at  once,  then  work  up  to  ways  less  apparent.  A  plan 
of  some  sort  is  quite  necessary,  a  well-defined  road  down  which 
to  lead  the  reader  or  listener. 

And  next?  Make  the  way  smooth.  See  that  it  is  well 
lighted.  Put  up  signs  wherever  the  traveler  is  liable  to  go 
astray.  A  word  not  readily  understood,  or  a  sentence  that 
is  bungled,  is  an  obstacle  in  the  path.  Your  language, 
therefore,  must  be  simple  and  clear.  You  can  light  your 
thoroughfare  by  means  of  illustrations,  which  are  like  electric 
lights    driving    the   shadows    from   dark   places.      Illustrations 


132  JUNIOR   ENGLISH   BOOK 

include  not  only  simple  pen  or  crayon  sketches  but  anecdotes 
or  ''specific  instances,"  as  they  are  called  in  textbooks.  Why 
are  pupils  late  for  school?  You  can  illustrate,  perhaps,  by 
telling  how,  on  a  certain  occasion,  you  were  late,  and  why. 
Comparisons,  too,  are  illuminating,  as  when  you  bring  to  the 
minds  of  others  the  appearance  of  a  machine  by  comparing  it 
to  something  familiar  to  every  one. 

That  is  all:  never  forgetting  what  you  are  to  do,  never 
beginning  till  that  which  you  are  to  explain  is  very  clear  in  your 
own  mind,  never  beginning  till  you  have  planned  out  the  route 
to  be  followed;  then  leading  slowly  along  the  route,  putting 
no  obstacles  in  the  way,  keeping  the  path  well  lighted  by  fre- 
quent illustration,  and  warning  wherever  there  is  danger  that 
some  one  may  go  astray. 


DRILL  EXERCISES 


PRONUNCIATION 

1 
Watch  the  vcmels  in  the  following  words.     Do  not  turn  sub- 

ject into  subjict,  nor  catch  into  ketch. 

catch 

far 

rather 

get 

America 

foreigner 

destroy 

stomach 

creek 

honorable 

nominate 

secretary 

candidate 

gentlemen 

salesmen 

subject 

object 

agreement 

tenement 

statement 

judgment 

argument 

providence 

evidence 

experience 

difference 

extravagant 

visitor 

ancestor 

bachelor 

extra 

solemn 

yesterday 

since 

because 

was 

Give  the  vowel  o 

2 

its  full  sound. 

Do  not  substitute  some  othei 

letter;  do  not  insert  r. 

fellows 

potatoes 

tomatoes 

meadows 

windows 

yellow 

pillow 

swallow 

borrow 

hollow 

piano 

eloquent 

innocent 

professor 

proportion 

introduce 

accommodate 

society 

chocolate 

hoist 

3 

You  cannot  mispronounce  arm  unless  you  try  very  hard; 
the  sound  of  sl  is  bound  to  be  correctly  given.  Give  the  same 
sound  to  a  in  the  following:  laugh,  half,  drama,  calf,  aunt. 

133 


134  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

Probably  you  pronounce  ask  correctly.  If  you  do  noty  the 
teacher  will  pronounce  it  correctly  for  you.  Give  the  same  sound 
to  a  in  the  following:  past,  path,  bath,  pastor. 

You  can  pronounce  day.  Give  a  the  same  sound  in  the  fol- 
lowing:  chaste,  gratis,  data,  apparatus. 


SPELLING 


hoping  planing  dining  spiting 

hopping  planning  dinning  spitting 

The  words  forming  each  of  the  above  pairs  differ  widely 
in  meaning;  to  substitute  one  for  the  other  would  be  a 
serious  error.  The  error  is  a  common  one,  however,  but  it 
is  seldom  made  by  those  whose  attention  has  been  called 
to  a  certain  rule.  The  terms  in  the  upper  line  obey  the 
rule  for  adding  suffixes  to  words  ending  in  silent  e.  Hope  + 
ing  =  hoping,  plane  +  ing  =  planing,  dine  +  ing  =  dining, 
spite  +  ing  =  spiting.  The  words  in  the  lower  hue  do  not 
end  in  silent  e,  nor  in  any  other  vowel.  They  obey  another 
rule. 

A  single  consonant  preceded  by  a  single  vowel  is  usually 
doubled  before  a  suflftx  beginning  with  a  vowel,  if  the  accent 
is  to  fall  on  the  syllable  preceding  the  suflix. 

hop  +  ing  =  hopping  plan  +  ing  =  planning 

din  +  ing  =  dinning  spit  +  ing  =  spitting 

Each  word,  it  will  be  noted,  ends  in  a  single  consonant  pre- 
ceded by  a  single  vowel,  and  the  new  word  is  accented  on 
the  syllable  preceding  the  suffix.  Here  are  additional  ex- 
amples. You  will  see  that  in  each  case  the  two  conditions 
of  the  rule  are  fulfilled:  the  word  ends  in  a  single  consonant 
preceded  by  a  single  vowel,  and  the  new  word  is  accented  on 
the  syllable  preceding  the  suffix. 


DRILL  EXERCISES  135 

begin  +  ing  =  beginning        forget  +  ing  =  forgetting 
begin  +  er  =  beginner  remit  +  ance  =  remittance 

sum  +  ary  =  summary  occur  +  ence  =  occurrence 

The  conditions  are  not  met  in  the  following  words: 

prefer  +  ence  =  preference.  (Accent  not  on  syllable  preceding 

the  suffix.) 
benefit  +  ed  =  benefited.    (Accent  not  on  syllable  preceding 

the  suffix.) 
pass  +  able  =  passable.     (Word    does    not    end    in   a  single 

consonant.) 
peel  +  ing  =  peeling.    (Final   consonant    not   preceded    by  a 

single  vowel.) 
Among  words  one  is  likely  to  misspell,  there  are  few  excep- 
tions to  this  rule.     Here  are  two  which  should  not  be  over- 
looked: crocheting i  transferable. 

Write  the  rule  from  memory^  being  careful  not  to  misspell 
consonant,  preceded,  snflSx,  and  syllable. 

Do  the  following  task  in  word-joinery,  and  show  that  in 
each  case  the  conditions  of  the  rule  are  met: 

bag  +  age  =       god  +  ess  =         occur  +  ing  =        red  +  en  = 
hot  +  er  =  sad  -f  er  =  admit  +  ance  =     stop  +  ing  = 

slim  +  er  =         wrap  +  ing  =      mad  +  er  =  refer  +  ing  = 


2 

Three  suflSxes  which  you  should  train  your  eye  to  notice 
are  /wZ,  aZ,  and  ly.  Notice  that  the  first  of  the  three  is  not 
full  but  ful.  If  you  hunt  the  dictionary  through,  it  is  prob- 
able that  you  will  not  find  a  word  ending  in  full,  but  many 
like  the  following: 


awful 

cheerful 

changeful 

doubtful 

thoughtful 

useful 

powerful 

plentiful 

faithful 

handful 

spoonful 

harmful 

136 


JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 


The  ending  al  is  even  more  common.    Notice  the  following: 


comical 

musical 

graphical 

usual 

physical 

majestical 

general 

final 

principal 

municipal 

actual 

metrical 

This  ending  is  never  misspelled.  But  trouble  arises  when, 
to  words  ending  in  ful  or  al,  the  suffix  ly  is  added.  Awful  +  ly 
does  not  make  awfuly  but  awfully.  Final  +  ly  does  not  make 
jinaly  but  finally.  Be  careful  not  to  reduce  ly  to  y.  Be 
careful  not  to  overlook  al. 

thoughtful  +  ly  =  thoughtfully    faithful  +  ly  =  faithfully 
changeful  +  ly  =  changefully        doubtful  +  ly  =  doubtfully 


useful  +  ly  =  usefully 
comic  +  al  +  ly  =  comically 
general  +  ly  =  generally 
final  +  ly  =  finally 
principal  +  ly  =  principally 


plentiful  +  ly  =  plentifully 
physic  +  al  +  ly  =  physically 
actual  +  ly  =  actually 
intention+al+ly  =  intentionally 
metric  +  al  +  ly  =  metrically 


Write  from  dictation  the  above  words,  underlining  the  syl- 
lables ful  and  al  wherever  they  occur. 

Make  an  additional  list  of  ten  words,  five  ending  in  ful  and 
five  in  al.  From  these  form  ten  more  wards  by  adding  the 
suffix  ly. 


Here  are  fifty  words  chosen  from  preceding  exercises.  Pre- 
pare to  spell  them  from  dictation.  Do  not  be  content  with 
getting  forty-nine  correct.     Get  fifty. 


preferred 

dying 

hoping 

municipal 

tying 

principally 

beginner 

peaceable 

generally 

sadder 

believe 

proving 

dining 

handful 

relief 

positively 

crocheting 

ninety 

arrangement 

goddess 

nineteen 

judgment 

niece 

movable 

receipt 

awful 

summary 

baggage 

physically 

piece 

occurrence 

referring 

admittance 

peeling 

redden 

changeable 

DRILL  EXERCISES  137 

wholly  comically  ceiling  useful 

finally  remittance  advertising  writing 

actually  occurring  salable  preference 

benefited  slimmer 


PUNCTUATION 

Rule.  —  The  colon  is  used  after  as  follows,  the  following, 
in  the  following  manner,  thus,  this,  these,  and  similar  expres- 
sions, when  they  introduce  quotations,  enumerations,  or 
explanations. 

According  to  Newton,  the  primary  colors  are  as  follows :  violet, 

indigo,  blue,  green,  yellow,  orange,  and  red. 
His  last  words  were  these:   "Don't  give  up  the  ship.'* 

When  the  enumeration  follows  the  verb  are^  the  colon  is  not 
used,  nor  is  the  comma  necessary.  Thus  we  write,  correctly. 
The  primary  colors  are  violet^  indigo^  hlue^  green,  yellow^  orange^ 
and  red.  A  comma  or  a  colon  would  but  separate  the  verb 
from  its  complement. 

Rule.  —  The  colon  is  used  after  the  salutation  in  letter 
writing.  It  is  also  used  after  a  formal  salutation  preceding 
a  speech,  such  as  Ladies  and  Gentlemen,  Mr,  President,  and 
Honorable  Judges. 

1 

Punctuate: 

1.  The  debaters  were  as  follows  affirmative  Jones  and  Smith; 
negative  Clark  and  Hermann.  2.  The  address  of  General 
Bordeaux  at  the  funeral  of   the  first  American  soldiers  to  fall 

on  the  French  front  began  as  follows  In  the  name  of  the 

Division  in  the  name  of  the  French  army  I  bid  farewell  to 
Corporal  Gresham  Private  Enright  and  Private  Hay  of  the 
Sixteenth  Infantry  American  Army.  3.  Here  are  the  particu- 
lars name  John  Smith;  height  five  feet  six  inches;  weight  16(> 
pounds.  4.  Our  nine  had  the  following  battery  catcher  John- 
son pitcher  Sullivan. 


138  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 


The  following  sentences  illustrate  various  ways  of  punc- 
tuating sentences  in  which  an  enumeration  occurs. 

1.  Sunday,    Monday,    Tuesday,    and    Wednesday    are    the 

first  four  days  of  the  week. 

2.  The  first  four  days  of  the  week  are  Sunday,  Monday, 

Tuesday,  and  Wednesday. 

Notice  that  in  the  first  sentence  no  mark  follows  Wednes- 
day; to  place  one  there  would  be  separating  subject  from 
predicate.  No  mark  is  placed  after  are  in  the  second ;  the 
nouns  following  the  verb  are  its  complement. 

3.  We  were  in  Rome  four  days:   Sunday,  Monday,  Tuesday, 

and  Wednesday. 

4.  The  first  four  days  of  the  week  are  these:    Sunday,  Mon- 

day, Tuesday,  and  Wednesday. 

5.  The  first  four  days  of  the  week  are  as  follows:    Sunday, 

Monday,  Tuesday,  and  Wednesday. 

In  these  three  sentences  the  colon  appears  immediately 
preceding  the  enumeration,  but  not  separating  subject  from 
predicate  nor  verb  from  complement.  The  colon  has  been 
called  the  "mark  of  expectancy.*'  When  the  reader  sees 
the  colon,  he  assumes  at  once  that  what  follows  it  will  be  an 
enumeration,  an  explanation  of  something  which  has  gone 
before,  or  an  expression  in  apposition  to  something  already 
mentioned. 

6.  Sunday,  Monday,  Tuesday,  Wednesday  —  these  are  the 

first  four  days  of  the  week. 

In  this  sentence  the  dash  is  used  to  indicate  a  change  in 
construction.  The  sentence  begins  as  if  Sunday,  Monday, 
Tuesday y  and  Wednesday  were  to  be  the  subject;  but  these, 
summing  up  what  has  gone  before,  becomes  the  new  sub- 
ject. 


DRILL  EXERCISES  139 

7.  The    first  four  days  —  Sunday,   Monday,  Tuesday,  and 

Wednesday  —  were  spent  in  Rome. 

8.  The   first   four   days    (Sunday,    Monday,    Tuesday,   and 

Wednesday)  were  spent  in  Rome. 

9.  For   three   days,   Monday,  Tuesday,  and   Wednesday,  it 

rained. 

In  these  three  sentences  the  enumeration  forms  a  paren- 
thesis. Dashes,  commas,  and  marks  of  parenthesis  are, 
perhaps,  equally  correct,  though  probably  most  writers 
would  prefer  the  dashes,  especially  in  a  long  sentence.  The 
commas  are  not  so  desirable  if  the  enumeration  is  a  long  one; 
perhaps  you  do  not  need  to  be  told  why. 

10.  The  first  four  days,  namely  Sunday,  Monday,  Tuesday, 

and  Wednesday,  were  unpleasant. 

11.  We    remained    in    Rome    four    days,    namely    Sunday, 

Monday,  Tuesday,  and  Wednesday. 

12.  There  are  many  points  of  interest,  such  as  the  lighthouse, 

the  life-saving  station,  and  the  boat-landing. 

These  sentences  illustrate  the  use  of  namely  and  such  as 
before  an  enumeration.  Notice  that  in  each  case  a  comma 
precedes  the  expression,  but  no  comma  follows  it. 

Write  from  dictation  the  twelve  examples  showing  ways  of 
punctuating  sentences  in  which  enumerations  occur. 

Punctuate  the  following.  Supply  capitals  where  they  are 
needed. 

1.  There  are  seven  simple  colors  red  orange  yellow  green 
blue  indigo  and  violet.  2.  The  seven  simple  colors  are  red 
orange  yellow  green  blue  indigo  and  violet.  3.  There  are 
seven  simple  colors  namely  red  orange  yellow  green  blue  indigo 
and  violet.  4.  The  seven  simple  colors  are  as  follows  red  orange 
yellow  green  blue  indigo  and  violet.  5.  The  simple  colors  are 
these  red  orange  yellow  green  blue  indigo  and  violet.  6.  The 
recipe  for  rabbit  pie  begins  thus  first  catch  the  rabbit.  7.  The 
address  began  as  follows  there  are  three  kinds  of  people  whom 
I  like  men  women  and  children.    8.    Our  reason  for  postponing 


140  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

the  trip  was  this  the  roads  owing  to  recent  rains  were  in  a  bad 
state.  9.  The  hour  was  spent  in  the  following  manner  first 
we  wrote  for  ten  minutes  on  some  familiar  topic  then  a  few 
of  the  compositions  were  read  and  criticized  after  which  we 
were  given  practice  in  extemporaneous  speaking.  10.  The 
message  was  this  come  Thursday  if  possible. 

Rule.  —  The  interrogation  point  is  used  (a)  at  the  close  of 
a  direct  question,  (b)  in  parenthesis  to  indicate  doubt. 

This  simple  rule  is  illustrated  in  the  following  sentences: 

What  time  is  it? 

"Where  are  you  going?"  she  asked. 

I  gave  it  to  the  friend  (?)  who  had  just  flattered  me. 

Notice  that  in  the  second  example  the  interrogation  point 
comes  immediately  after  the  question,  not  at  the  close  of  the 
completed  sentence.  In  the  third  sentence  the  question 
mark  suggests  that  one  who  flatters  you  can  hardly  be  called 
a  friend.  It  questions  the  appropriateness  of  the  word 
friend. 

Rule.  —  The  exclamation  point  is  used  after  interjections, 
exclamatory  words  and  phrases,  and  sentences  expressing 
strong  emotion. 

This  is  not  a  rule  to  be  followed  blindly.  Judgment  is 
necessary  in  determining  where  a  point  will  add  needed 
force. 

O  Antony,  beg  not  your  death  from  us! 

Oh  that  today  were  Saturday! 

Oh!  how  that  hurt! 

He  thinks  I  am  angry.     How  absurd! 

Rule.  —  The  apostrophe  is  used  (a)  to  distinguish  the  pos- 
sessive case  of  nouns,  (h)  to  indicate  the  plurals  of  letters  and 
figures,  and  (c)  to  show  the  omission  of  letters. 

These  three  uses  are  illustrated  in  the  following  sentence: 


DRILL  EXERCISES  141 

John's  b's  and  6's,  'tis  true,  look  much  alike. 

Remember  that  the  possessive  forms  of  pronouns  do  not 
call  for  the  apostrophe.  It's  is  not  the  possessive  form  of  it, 
but  a  contraction  of  it  is.  Who's  is  not  the  possessive  form 
of  who,  but  a  contraction  of  who  is. 

3 

Write  the  following  from  dictation.  Try  your  best  not  to 
make  a  single  mistake  in  the  use  of  the  apostrophe. 

1.  It's  growing  dark;  let's  start  for  camp.  2.  Whose  dog 
is  it?  3.  Are  you  fond  of  Dickens's  novels?  4.  You're  always 
forgetting  things.  5.  Dot  your  i's  and  cross  your  t's,  please. 
6.  He  found  a  lady's  glove.  7.  Where  is  your  gun?  8.  I 
think  you  should  make  better  fours  and  6's.  9.  He  purchased 
a  thousand  dollars'  worth.  10.  You  may  all  pass  to  Miss 
Collins's  room.  11.  He  filled  his  pockets  with  apples.  12. 
One  of  the  lady's  friends  called  for  her  at  six  o'clock.  13. 
You've  hurt  their  feelings,  haven't  you?  14.  It's  time  the  bird 
had  its  supper.  15.  I'm  very  tired;  aren't  you?  16.  They're 
going  with  Alice's  uncle.  17.  I'm  surprised  to  hear  a  college 
graduate  say  cunnin'  and  doin\  18.  Who'll  pay  the  freight? 
19.  I  hope  I  haven't  made  a  mistake.  20.  The  horses'  names 
were  Bob  and  Jim. 


COURSE  V 

COMPOSITION 
Picturing 

Exercises  in  simple  description 

DRILL 

Pronunciation 

Words  containing  th  or  pth 
Correct  sound  of  vowels 

Spelling 

Homonyms 

Words  often  confused 

Punctuation 

The  comma  used  to  set  off  a  non-restrictive  element 
The  comma  used  before  a  connective 


PICTURING 

"Description  is  the  part  you  skip  when  reading  a  story.** 
That  is  a  boy's  definition.  The  teacher,  commenting  on  it, 
repHes,  "If  by  description  you  mean  word-pictures,  your 
definition  will  hardly  do,  John.  Why,  some  stories  are  little 
more  than  word-pictures  strung  together  like  so  many  beads, 
with  an  explanatory  bead  cunningly  slipped  in  here  and  there. 
Have  you  ever  stopped  to  think  what  a  story  would  be  with 
all  the  picture  words  carefully  removed?  Which  of  these 
two  sentences  do  you  prefer  —  He  crossed  the  deck,  or  He 
hobbled,  'painfully  across  the  deck?  Even  in  the  conversa- 
tional parts  of  a  story,  which  of  course  you  find  pleasantest 
to  read,  the  author  commonly  slips  in  a  few  pictures;  for 
example : 

"  I  d-dropped  the  bag  and  —  all  the  beans  spilled,"  said 
Tom,  with  a  feeble  grin. 

"Dropped  the  bag!"  cried  the  merchant,  ^w  face  flushing 
with  anger. 

"  Probably  what  you  mean  is  that  you  do  not  like  too 
much  description  all  at  once,  especially  if  it  *  slows  up*  the 
narrative  at  an  exciting  moment.  In  that  respect  you  are 
not  very  different  from  other  people.  But  your  definition, 
John,  is  misleading  in  another  way.  Description  is  found 
elsewhere  than  in  stories.  Even  in  explaining  things,  mak- 
ing clear  how  a  machine  works,  for  example,  pictures  are 
quite  necessary,  though  in  exposition  the  picture  beads  may 
be  few  in  number.*' 

Sometimes  the  purpose  of  a  speaker  or  writer  is  merely 
to  picture,  nothing  more.    Take  for  instance  your  fountain 

145 


146  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

pen.  You  may  not  care  to  explain  that  hidden  in  its  barrel 
is  a  little  rubber  sack  from  which  ink  slowly  escapes  when 
the  pen-point  is  pressed  against  the  paper,  and  that  to  refill 
the  sack  you  dip  the  pen-point  into  ink  and  then  pump  with 
an  ingeniously  contrived  lever  attached  to  the  barrel.  That 
would  be  exposition  —  exposition  into  which  a  few  pictures 
might  creep  in  spite  of  you,  however.  You  may  not  care 
to  recount  some  experience  connected  with  the  pen,  as  how 
it  slipped  from  your  pocket,  one  day,  but  was  found  a  week 
later  when  you  were  raking  up  the  leaves  in  the  back  yard. 
That  would  be  narration.  It  may  be  that  all  you  care  to  do 
is  to  picture  the  pen  —  its  black,  shining,  slender  barrel,  its 
pen-point  of  gold,  its  nickel  clip — so  that  some  one  miles 
away  can  form  in  his  mind  an  image  of  it.  That  would  be 
pure  description. 

Whether  employed  in  narration  or  exposition  or  alone 
by  itself,  description  is  invaluable.  The  traveler  returning 
from  a  strange  land  surely  needs  it;  and  the  reporter  who 
desires  not  only  to  tell  how  many  miles  the  army  has  ad- 
vanced in  its  latest  drive,  but  to  reveal  the  fury  of  battle  in 
vivid  detail.  The  merchant  needs  it  when  he  makes  out 
his  descriptive  catalogue.  A  little  thought  will  convince  you 
that  ability  to  picture  is  of  very  great  value  to  the  scientist, 
the  inventor,  the  teacher,  the  preacher,  the  lawyer.  It  is 
a  good  thing  for  any  one  to  possess,  a  good  thing  for  you. 


EXERCISE  1 

This  morning  you  followed  a  trail  leading  from  your  home 
to  the  school  building.  It  was  but  one  of  a  great  number  of 
trails,  no  two  alike,  each  starting  at  a  home  where  there  are 
young  people  who  go  to  school.  More  varied  than  the  trails 
were  the  pictures  collected  along  the  way;  for  no  two  pairs 
of  eyes  are  attracted  by  the  same  things.  If  all  the  pictures 
thus  gathered  in  a  single  morning  could  somehow  be  trans- 


PICTURING  147 

ferred  to  a  great  canvas,  they  would  make  a  wonderful  dis-. 
play.     We  will  try  an  experiment  along  this  hne. 

Tomorrow  come  to  class  prepared  to  picture  in  words  some- 
thing you  have  seen  on  the  way  to  school.  It  may  be  a  build- 
ing,  a  yard,  a  little  child,  a  street  vender,  a  fruit  stand,  a  window 
display,  a  beetle,  a  costume,  a  cloud,  —  anything  whatever 
that  attracts  your  attention  and  holds  it  for  an  instant.  Per- 
haps the  instructor  will  ''recite''  first. 

Here  is  a  single  hint.  Some  of  your  kodak  pictures  dis- 
appoint you.  They  do  not  come  out  clear  and  "sharp." 
The  clerk  at  the  shop  where  they  have  been  developed 
explains  it,  perhaps,  in  a  single  word:  "Under-exposed." 
He  means  that  you  did  not  give  the  sunlight  time  to  travel 
through  the  lens  and  imprint  a  clear  picture  on  the  sensitive 
gelatine-covered  film.  It  takes  time  to  register  a  picture 
with  the  eye,  which  is  but  a  lens  with  a  sensitive  plate  back 
of  it.  Do  not  hurry,  therefore.  Take  a  good  long  look  at 
whatever  you  mean  to  describe. 


EXERCISE  2 

How  did  yesterday's  experiment  work?  What  was  the 
best  picture  brought  in?  What  made  it  praiseworthy?  In 
your  own  case,  if  you  did  not  succeed  very  well,  what  was 
the  chief  difficulty?  Have  you  learned  anything,  through 
the  experiment,  about  the  art  of  describing?  Could  you  do 
better  another  time?  Here  is  your  opportunity  to  find 
out. 

On  your  way  home  from  school,  keep  your  eye  alert.  Pick 
out  something,  as  in  the  previous  task,  and  memorize  it  —  im- 
press it  upcm  your  mind.  Bring  to  class  the  picture  in  the 
form  of  a  written  descripticm  of  one  or  two  hundred  words.  Be 
prepared  to  tell  what  difficulty  you  had  in  writing  it.  In  a 
friendly  way  criticize  the  descriptions  brought  in  by  the 
others. 


148  JU>^OR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

EXERCISE  3 

Things  disappear  mysteriously.  We  leave  them  behind 
us  on  car  seats.  They  shp  unnoticed  from  our  hands  as  we 
are  hurrying  along  the  street.  Articles  borrowed  are  not 
always  returned;  we  forget  what  has  become  of  them. 
And  there  is  the  light-fingered  thief.  This  tendency  of 
things  to  disappear  suggests  a  practical  task  in  description. 

Imagine  you  have  lost  something  that  is  suggested  hy  the  list 
found  below.  First  write  an  advertisement,  not  over  twenty 
words,  for  the  Lost  and  Found  column  in  the  evening  paper. 
Then  write  a  detailed  description  of  the  article  lost,  employing 
perhaps  a  hundred  words. 

1.  An  overcoat,  or  some  other  garment.  2.  A  watch,  or 
something  else  purchased  at  the  jeweler's.  3.  A  cane  or  an 
umbrella.  4.  A  camera.  5.  A  bicycle  or  an  automobile. 
6.  A  pocketbook,  a  handbag,  or  a  valise.  7.  A  kit  of  tools. 
8.    A  piece  of  furniture. 

Before  beginning,  study  carefully  the  object  to  be  de- 
scribed. What  distinguishes  it  from  others  of  its  kind? 
What  are  the  unmistakable  marks  by  which  it  can  be  identi- 
fied? Imagine  that  the  one  who  has  found  the  article  is 
questioning  you  very  closely  to  make  sure  that  you  are  the 
rightful  owner.  Use  few  words  and  make  every  word  count. 
In  the  detailed  description,  use  none  but  complete  sentences. 

EXERCISE  4 

Imagine  that  one  of  the  following  is  lost  and  that  you  have 
been  called  upon  to  give,  orally,  an  accurate  description  in  ap- 
proximately two  hundred  words. 

1.  A  dog.  2.  A  cat  3.  A  parrot.  4.  A  horse.  5.  A  little 
boy  or  a  little  girl.    6.    An  old  gentleman. 

Animals  and  persons  are  more  difficult  to  identify  than 
inanimate  things;  hence  you  will  need  to  exercise  unusual 
care.     Do  not  make  the  description  imaginary;    describe  a 


PICTURING  149 

real  dog,  a  real  horse,  etc.  But  you  may  imagine  that  a 
great  deal  depends  on  the  clearness,  accuracy,  and  com- 
pleteness of  your  account. 

EXERCISE  5 

We  will  hold  a  sale,  purely  imaginary  of  course,  and  un- 
like any  that  you  have  ever  attended.  Each  member  of  the 
class  may  furnish  one  article  —  whatever  he  pleases.  He 
will  bring  to  class  not  the  article  itself,  however,  but  the  very 
best  description  of  it  that  he  can  write.  It  must  be  an  ab- 
solutely truthful  description,  not  a  statement  in  any  way 
misleading,  though  the  description  may  be  made  as  attrac- 
tive as  honesty  and  cleverness  permit.  The  descriptions  will 
be  read  by  an  auctioneer  —  the  teacher  —  in  an  impartial 
manner.  Each  pupil  may  bid  for  one  article  only,  not  the 
one  he  desires  most  to  possess,  but  the  one  that  is  best  de- 
scribed, presenting  the  clearest,  most  attractive  picture. 
Which  article  will  bring  the  highest  amount,  each  vote  count- 
ing a  penny,  or  a  dollar .^^    Your  part  in  the  sale,  then,  is  this: 

Bring  to  class  tomorrow  a  written  word-picture  of  something 
to  sell,  something  that  was  before  your  eyes  as  you  described  it. 
Anything  will  do,  from  a  pair  of  old  shoes  to  a  new  piano  —  or 
an  elephant,  if  you  happen  to  have  one.  Do  not  forget  that  the 
picture  must  be  absolutely  truthful.  Do  not  forget  that  it  must 
be  a  picture. 

EXERCISE  6 

On  page  150  is  a  picture  of  Franklin's  birthplace.  What 
first  catches  your  attention  as  you  study  it.?  That  it  is 
small,  plain,  "blocky"?  That  the  second  story  overhangs 
the  first?  That  the  windows  are  heavily  cased,  and  the 
panes  rather  small  ?  Notice  the  door,  the  chimney,  the 
cellar  wall,  the  covered  hatchway,  the  paved  area.  If  asked 
to  describe  this  dwelling,  where  should  you  begin?  To  go 
methodically  from  left  to  right  or  from  top  to  bottom  would 


150 


JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 


not  do.  The  best  way,  perhaps,  would  be  to  present  the 
items  in  the  order  in  which  the  imagination  needs  them  — 
the  big,  striking  things  first,  then  whatever  is  less  notice- 
able.    Here  is  a  description  that  follows  such  a  plan: 


Franklin's  Birthplace 


The  picture  before  me  shows  a  very  plain  little  gable-roofed 
house  without  ells  or  piazzas  or  porches,  resting  on  a  founda- 
tion not  more  than  twenty-five  feet  square.  That  it  is  not  a 
building  of  our  day  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  second  of 
its  two  stories  slightly  overhangs  the  lower,  and  the  somewhat 
heavily  framed  windows  have  small  panes,  six  to  each  sash. 
The  side  of  the  house  is  well  supplied  with  windows,  two  for 
each  story  and  a  fifth  in  the  gable.     The  front  is  not  so  well 


PICTURING 


151 


supplied;  there  are  but  two,  one  above  the  other.  The  one 
door  is  at  the  extreme  right,  in  the  front  wall.  I  see  no  path 
leading  up  to  it;  but  flagstones  lead  to  a  paved  area  at  the  side, 
where  there  is  a  low-roofed  hatchway  giving  entrance  to  the 
cellar.  The  rooms  must  have  low  ceilings,  and  in  one  of  the 
rooms,  that  into  which  the  front  door  opens,  there  is  probably 
a  fireplace,  for  a  substantial  chimney  rides  the  ridgepole  at  one 
end.  There  is  no  suggestion  that  the  building  has  ever  been 
painted.  The  picture  does  not  show  the  surroundings,  but  one 
gets  the  impression  that  they  are  not  attractive.  Sunshine 
brightens  somewhat  the  paved  area  and  lights  up  the  windows 
in  the  gable  end,  but  the  front  of  the  house,  which  lies  in  deep 
shadow,  looks  gloomy  enough.  In  this  little  house,  so  plain, 
so  unattractive,  Benjamin  Franklin  was  born. 


The  Shack 

Here  is  a  picture  of  another  building,  almost  as  easy  to 
describe  as  Franklin's  birthplace.  How  does  it  differ  from 
the  house  in  which  you  live?  What  do  you  notice  about  it 
first?    What  things   not  observed   at  first  glance   do  you 


152  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

notice  upon  more  careful  study?  Can  you  think  of  four  or 
five  adjectives  or  phrases  which  might  be  used  in  picturing 
it?    In  what  order  should  they  be  used? 

Describe  the  building,  employing  about  300  words. 

EXERCISE  7 

Now  for  a   task  somewhat  more   difficult.      Here  is  a 
picture  of  an  old  homestead.     Do  you  Uke  it?     What  in 


The  Old  Homestead 

particular  pleases  you?  If  you  were  to  make  a  list  of  all 
the  many  things  which  could  be  said  about  it  —  about  the 
house  itself,  the  yard,  the  trees,  the  roadway  —  it  would 
be  a  very  long  one.  Because  there  is  so  much  to  tell, 
great  care  would  be  needed  in  picturing  things  in  the  best 
order. 

Write  a  300  word  description  of  this  old  home.     Mention 
the  big^  prominent  things  first.     If  you  have  been  especially 


PICTURING  153 

Utr acted  by  one  or  two  things,  keep  these  in  mind  as  you  write. 
Doing  so  will  give  your  description  a  degree  of  unity;  and  he- 
sides,  it  will  enable  you  to  put  something  of  yourself  into  the 
composition. 

EXERCISE  8 

In  a  three-minute  talk  picture  some  building  as  it  appears 
to  the  passer-by.  It  is  not  necessary  that  you  select  from  the 
list  found  below.  It  is  necessary  that  you  describe  a  building 
that  you  have  actually  seen  and  can  recall  to  memory  with  a 
good  degree  of  accuracy. 

1.  Where  I  live.  2.  The  house  across  the  way.  3.  The 
school  building.  4.  Our  shack.  5.  Seen  at  the  military  en- 
campment.      6.    An     ancient     dwelling.       7.    Where     poverty 

dwells.     8.    A  deserted  house.     9.    Where  farmer lives. 

10.  A  factory.  11.  A  settler's  cabin.  12.  A  country  store. 
13.  A  hotel.  14.  A  lighthouse.  15.  An  oflGice  building. 
16.  A  proud  mansion.  17.  Down  by  the  river.  18.  The  rail- 
way station.  19.  At  a  summer  camp.  20.  A  barn.  21.  A 
garage.     22.    Just  a  shanty. 

Here  are  two  suggestions.  First,  try  to  emphasize  some 
one  thing  —  the  age  of  the  ancient  building,  the  "we-made- 
it-all-ourselves'*  appearance  of  the  shack,  the  attractive, 
homey  air  of  the  house  in  which  you  live,  the  air  of  neglect 
which  marks  the  house  across  the  way,  etc.  It  will  help 
to  give  your  description  unity.  Second,  do  not  make  the 
picture  cold,  impersonal;  let  your  likes  and  dislikes  color 
it.  A  camera  does  nothing  but  register  whatever  comes  in 
front  of  its  lens.  It  cannot  select  items;  it  cannot  unify 
by  emphasizing  some  one  thing;  it  cannot  express  likes  and 
dislikes.  But  you  can.  You  have  a  mind  and  a  heart. 
Use  them. 

EXERCISE  9 

Here  is  a  description  of  a  room.  It  was  written  not  by 
a  pupil  but  by  a  teacher,  yet  you  may  criticize  it  freely. 


154  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

Does  it  present  a  clear  picture?  Can  you  find  anything  to 
praise?  Is  the  description  orderly,  or  are  the  items  thrown 
together  without  much  system?  Are  one  or  two  things 
strongly  emphasized?  Has  the  writer  neglected  to  mention 
colors? 

My  Room 

It  is  on  the  top  floor,  a  corner  room  about  twenty  feet  square, 
with  sloping  ceiling,  lighted  by  an  east  wmdow  and  a  south 
window  and  a  single  gas  jet.  The  floor  of  wide  boards  (ours  is 
an  old  house)  is  painted  a  faint  pumpkin  yellow,  with  the 
brown  of  an  earlier  coat  beginning  to  show  through;  the  walls 
are  papered  with  tan-colored  "oatmeal,"  and  the  ceiling, 
likewise  papered,  is  an  ancient  gray.     The  woodwork  is  white. 

You  can  see  at  a  glance  that  it  is  a  man's  room,  a  booklover's 
room,  a  literary  workshop.  Home-made  shelves,  about  five 
feet  high,  conceal  much  of  the  wall  space.  They  are  crowded. 
Odd  volumes  are  squeezed  in  above  the  regular  rows,  and  a 
long  line  on  top  patiently  wait  for  a  chance  to  get  in  somewhere. 
There  are  books  on  the  big  *' mission"  table  between  the  win- 
dows, and  in  two  revolving  cases,  one  case  large  enough  to  hold 
an  encyclopedia  in  twenty-four  volumes,  the  other  a  mere 
youngster  little  more  than  two  feet  high.  There's  a  book  on 
top  of  the  Franklin  stove  which  helps  out  the  cellar  furnace  on 
cold  days;  and,  I  regret  to  add,  books  lie  here  and  there  on  the 
floor  —  not  many. 

Pictures,  mainly  photographs  of  scenes  "down  East"  or 
across  the  ocean  (reminders  of  vacation  days),  a  large  map  of 
the  battlefields  in  Europe,  and  a  huge  calendar,  two  feet  by 
three,  conceal  more  of  the  wall  space.  The  east  wall  shows  a 
strange  eruption.  Suspended  from  picture  hooks  and  from  nails 
driven  in  ruthlessly  here  and  there  are  clips,  each  holding  in 
its  jaws  a  collection  of  cards,  newspaper  cuttings,  memoranda 
of  various  kinds,  in  disorderly  array,  but  most  convenient 
to  get  at.  The  furniture  is  miscellaneous,  with  one  comfort- 
able armchair  to  redeem  it,  and  a  most  uncomfortable  bent- 
wood  affair  with  a  swivel  that  goes  with  the  little  typewriter 
table   beneath  the  gas  jet,  a  leather-cushioned  ottoman  which 


PICTURING 


155 


serves  no  purpose   whatever,   and   an   old   wastebasket,   dilap- 
idated but  still  cherished. 

The  room  is  not  orderly,  nor  very  well  lighted,  nor  always 
comfortably  warm;  but  it  is  mine,  has  been  for  many  years, 
and  I  like  it.  I  like  it  best  at  night  when  other  people  are 
asleep,  and  the  piano  next  door  has  sent  forth  its  final  burst 
of  ragtime,  and  the  traffic  has  deserted  the  street  beneath  the 
east  window,  and  the  rain  is  drumming  softly  on  the  tin  roof 
above. 

Here  is  a  sketch  of  a  dining-room.  How  do  you  like 
this   room.f*     Is   it   home-like?     Does   it   suggest   poverty. 


The  Dining-room 


wealth,  or  a  moderate  income?  Is  it  a  large  room?  Does 
it  contain  much  furniture,  or  has  there  been  an  attempt  to 
keep  it  simple?  Is  any  of  the  furniture  old  fashioned?  What 
is  a  highboy? 

Let  the  clasSy  worlcing  together,  plan  a  description  of  the 
dining-room.    First  make  a  list  of  all  the  things  to  be  mentioned. 


156  .     JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

Next  determine  one  or  two  things  to  he  emphasized.  Finally 
make  a  Utile  plan  shovnng  what  each  of  the  two  or  three  para- 
graphs to  be  employed  shall  tell. 

EXERCISE  10 

Write  a  description  of  the  dining-room.     Or  if  you  prefer, 
describe,  in  writing,  the  room  pictured  on  this  page. 


The  Parlor 

EXERCISE  11 

Describe,  in  writing,  any  interior  with  which  you  are  familiar, 
selecting  if  convenient  from  the  folloiving  list: 

1.  Any  room  in  your  home:  pantry,  kitchen,  cellar,  your 
own  room. 

2.  A  room  in  the  school  building:  the  principal's  office,  the 
gymnasium,  the  lunch  room,  the  room  in  which  you  sit,  the 
library. 


PICTURING  157 

S.  A  room  in  one  of  the  buildings  mentioned  in  connection 
with  Exercise  8. 

Try  especially  hard,  this  time,  to  emphasize  some  one 
thing.  A  boy's  room  is  pretty  sure  to  show  that  it  is  a 
boy*s  room.  It  may  even  reveal  what  kind  of  boy  occupies 
it.  Keep  this  in  mind,  if  you  are  describing  a  boy's  room. 
If  you  are  describing  a  kitchen,  make  it  very  kitcheny. 

Here  is  another  suggestion.  Boys  especially,  in  describ- 
ing things,  neglect  color.  They  give  dimensions,  they  in- 
ventory; but  color  is  too  much  for  them,  or  perhaps  they 
think  little  about  it.  The  colors  are  there;  they  are  a  part 
of  every  room,  unless  it  is  pitch  dark.  Be  a  bit  braver  than 
usual  and  put  in  a  few  "dabs,"  even  though  you  are,  at 
first,  somewhat  clumsy  at  it. 


EXERCISE  12 

Your  eyes  and  your  ears  are  servants.  Unlike  other 
servants,  however,  they  cannot  be  dismissed.  Good  or 
bad,  they  remain  with  you  for  life.  Hence  it  is  well  to  train 
them;  for  if  they  are  not  trained  to  keep  alert  and  report 
with  promptness  and  accuracy,  they  will  hamper  you  in 
business  and  interfere  with  your  pleasure.  A  main  reason 
why  exercises  in  description  are  valuable  in  a  very  practical 
way  is  that  they  force  you  to  train  your  senses  to  do  accurate 
work. 

It  is  capital  exercise,  and  not  bad  fun,  to  observe  minutely 
where  something  is  "going  on,"  noting  every  movement, 
and  picturing  it  in  a  carefully  prepared  report,  as  a  scout 
might,  or  a  detective,  or  a  naturalist.  Here  is  a  good  re- 
port by  Edward  Forbush,  who  has  written  fascinating  books 
about  birds. 

One  sunny  day  in  early  boyhood  I  watched  a  Vireo  singing 
in  a  swampy  thicket.     He  sang  a  few  notes,  his  head  turning 


158  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

meanwhile  from  side  to  side,  his  eyes  scanning  closely  the 
near-by  foliage.  Suddenly  the  song  ceased;  he  leaned  forward, 
sprang  to  another  twig,  snatched  a  green  caterpillar  from  the 
under  side  of  a  leaf,  swallowed  it,  and  resumed  his  song. 

Here  is  a  second  picture-incident: 

One  day,  as  I  stopped  to  drink  at  a  spring  in  the  woods, 
a  beautiful  male  Black-throated  Green  Warbler  shot  down 
from  a  tall  tree  and  alighted  on  a  moss-grown  rock  that  bordered 
the  diminutive  pool.  Evidently  he  had  not  expected  me, 
but  was  not  at  all  afraid.  He  looked  up  at  me  inquiringly 
for  a  moment,  and  then,  stepping  into  the  shallow  water, 
dipped  his  head  and  threw  the  drops  in  showers  as  he  shook 
out  his  brilliant  plumage  in  the  bath.  His  ablutions  finished, 
he  mounted  again  to  a  tree  and  sent  back  his  drowsy  song. 

Here  are  three  school  compositions.  If  you  were  acting  as 
judge  in  a  contest,  to  which  of  the  three  would  you  give  first 
'prize?  The  two  points  to  he  considered  are  first,  ability  to 
observe  accurately;  second,  ability  to  record  observations  in 
correct,  clear,  attractive  English, 


1.   How  a  Cat  Crosses  a  Muddy  Road 

First  her  ladyship  looks  up  and  down  the  street,  and  then 
from  her  vantage-point  on  the  walk  gingerly  stretches  forth 
one  paw  into  the  muddy  expanse  beneath  her.  Perhaps  the 
spot  doesn't  strike  her  as  being  fordable;  then  she  tries  another 
place  about  a  foot  away.  Perhaps  it  does  suit  her;  if  so, 
she  proceeds  to  get  the  rest  of  her  feet  "into  the  works,"  where- 
upon she  again  stops,  lifts  a  paw  and  shakes  it  in  a  disgusted 
manner.  The  very  contact  of  anything  so  polluting  as  mud 
shocks  her  dainty  mind.  But  the  longed-for  goal  is  the  other 
side  of  the  street;  so  she  carefully  picks  out  her  way  in  a  per- 
severing manner,  every  few  steps  shaking  a  defiant  paw  in 
the  direction  that  she  has  come.  Finally  the  curbstone  is 
near.     She  makes  a  final  leap  —  and  is  over. 


PICTURING  159 

2.  Perils  of  the  Chase 

One  dark  and  cloudy  afternoon,  when  I  was  looking  out  of 
the  window  at  a  somewhat  dreary  prospect,  wishing  for  some 
kind  of  excitement  other  than  that  of  perusing  the  rather  dry 
and  dusty  efforts  of  a  certain  Mr.  Cicero,  I  happened  to  notice 
a  squirrel,  which  was  jumping  about  in  a  tree  below  the  window. 
A  beautiful  little  gray  fellow  he  was,  with  smooth  fur  and  a 
long,  thick  tail.  He  seemed  unusually  happy,  springing  from 
limb  to  limb  and  chattering  gleefully  to  himself. 

I  watched  him  as  he  climbed  down  the  tree,  head  first,  in 
the  pretty  way  they  have;  and  when  he  reached  the  ground, 
I  noticed  how  delicately  he  stepped  about  on  his  stout  little 
legs,  and  how  daintily  he  nibbled  a  nut  which  he  dug  up  from 
some  secret  hiding-place  of  his. 

As  he  was  standing  up  on  his  hind  legs,  rapidly  consuming 
the  nut,  for  all  the  world  like  a  little  colored  brother  with  a 
slice  of  watermelon,  I  noticed  something  else.  It  was  a  cat, 
a  tiger  cat,  beautiful  also,  with  its  sleek,  yellow  coat  and  lightly 
waving  tail,  but  beautiful  in  a  different  way;  for  as  it  stepped 
slowly  and  silently  toward  the  unsuspecting  squirrel,  it  seemed 
to  be  the  very  personification  of  sure  and  silent  purpose. 

The  squirrel  finished  his  nut  and,  dropping  to  his  fore  legs 
again,  began  searching  about  in  the  grass  for  more.  The 
instant  he  moved,  the  cat  *' froze."  As  the  squirrel  did  not 
notice,  it  slowly  flattened  to  the  ground  and  remained  so  quiet 
and  so  flat  that  it  seemed  a  part  of  the  earth  itself,  except  for 
its  ears,  which  moved  back  and  forth  nervously. 

The  squirrel  wandered  aimlessly  one  way  and  another,  but 
all  the  time  he  was  approaching  the  waiting  cat.  They  were 
but  six  feet  apart,  then  five,  then  four.  Even  the  cat's  ears 
had  ceased  moving;  its  eyes  watched  as  steadily  and  brightly 
as  though  they  were  of  glass.  The  cat  was  barely  a  yard  away. 
I  saw  its  hindquarters  move  almost  imperceptibly  as  it  pre- 
pared to  spring.  I  became  aware  of  the  fact  that  I  was  grip- 
ping the  chair-arms  with  quite  remarkable  convulsiveness. 
But  the  squirrel  turned  away  to  the  side  and  the  cat  did  not 
spring. 


160  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK     s 

He  continued  wandering  for  a  little  while,  and  then  stood  up 
on  his  hind  legs  and  looked  around.  Surely  he  could  not  but 
see  the  danger  which  was  still  so  near,  but  apparently  he  saw 
nothing,  for  he  calmly  turned  his  back  and  hopped  over  to  the 
foot  of  the  tree.  After  stopping  an  instant,  he  began  leisurely 
to  ascend.  The  cat,  angry  at  having  lost  so  easily  the  prize 
which  had  been  within  its  grasp,  sprang  after  the  squirrel  and 
up  the  tree. 

Up  to  this  time,  I  had  not  thought  of  interfering;  I  had  been 
too  interested.  Now  it  seemed  too  late.  But  the  cat  had 
made  an  error  in  leaving  its  native  element,  the  earth,  for  the 
squirrel's  own  territory,  the  tree-tops.  To  show  the  way  he 
felt  about  the  intrusion,  the  squirrel  turned  around,  rushed 
down  the  tree-trunk,  and  clawed  that  cat  with  his  very  sharpest 
claw,  square  on  that  tenderest  and  most  cherished  possession, 
the  nose.  A  more  surprised  or  more  thoroughly  cowed  cat, 
you  never  saw.  It  did  not  stop  to  climb  out  of  that  tree; 
it  jumped.  At  the  rate  it  was  going,  as  I  saw  it  go  under  the 
hedge  at  the  other  side  of  the  yard,  I  should  say  it  was  running 
yet.  As  for  the  squirrel,  he  turned  and  ran  up  the  tree  again, 
still  chattering  joyfully  to  himself. 


3.  Ten  Minutes  in  the  Life  of  a  Cat 

I  had  settled  down  to  read  a  good  story,  this  afternoon,  and 
was  just  getting  interested  in  it  when  my  cat  came  into  the  room. 
I  said,  "Hello,  Jack."  "Purr-r-r  meow,"  he  answered.  He 
is  pure  white,  and  just  at  the  age  when  cats  seem  to  play  most; 
that  is,  when  they  have  about  reached  their  full  growth  but 
have  not  become  night-prowlers. 

I  have  an  old  squirrel  skin  tied  up  in  my  room  for  him  to  play 
with,  which  he  likes  very  much.  He  walked  over  to  this  and 
began  to  tap  it  with  his  paws.  Then  he  hit  it  and  began  to 
rush  it  around  and  do  all  sorts  of  stunts  just  as  if  he  were  play 
ing  with  a  live  animal.  Then,  seeming  to  become  tired  of 
jumping  around  so,  he  lay  on  his  back,  holding  the  skin  to  him 
with  his  front  paws  and  trying  to  kick  it  away  with  his  hind 
paws,  just  as  if  his  front  and  hind  legs  were  engaged  in  a  trial  of 


PICTURING  161 

strength.  Finally,  taking  hold  of  it  with  his  teeth,  he  stood 
on  his  hind  legs  and  began  to  pull  with  all  his  might.  Snap! 
tump!  and  he  was  on  his  back  with  the  squirrel  skin  in  his 
mouth,  and  the  string  was  dangling. 

He  got  up,  dropped  the  skin,  walked  away  a  few  feet,  and 
sat  down  to  look  at  it.  He  seemed  surprised  and  angry  at  it, 
as  nothing  like  this  had  ever  happened  before,  and  cat-like 
he  blamed  the  skin  instead  of  the  string,  and  refused  to  play 
with  it  for  a  while. 

He  walked  over  to  my  table  on  which  I  have  a  can  full  of 
catnip  and  began  to  beg  for  some.  I  put  some  on  the  floor, 
made  him  sit  between  my  feet,  held  my  hands  clasped  together 
about  three  feet  high,  and  told  him  to  jump.  He  cleared  my 
hands  with  a  graceful  bound  and  began  to  eat  the  catnip  as  if  he 
hadn't  had  any  for  a  month.  When  he  had  eaten  this,  I  gave 
him  some  more.  As  catnip  affects  cats  somewhat  as  liquor 
affects  men,  I  watched  him  to  see  when  it  would  take  effect. 
After  he  had  eaten  perhaps  half  of  it,  he  began  to  get  fool- 
ish. He  rolled  in  what  was  left,  clawed  the  floor,  scraped  his 
face  in  it,  and  acted  generally  foolish.  Soon  he  got  up  and 
walked  unsteadily  over  to  the  squirrel  skin  and  lay  down  on  it 
fast  asleep. 

I  turned  to  look  at  the  clock  and  was  surprised  to  see  that 
it  was  only  ten  minutes  since  I  had  started  to  read.  Yet  the 
cat  had  come  in,  played  a  while,  hurt  himself,  got  intoxicated, 
and  gone  to  sleep  in  that  time. 


EXERCISE   13 

Play  the  'part  of  careful  observer.  Write  a  descriptive  ac- 
count like  the  one  you  have  just  ready  recording  with  thorough- 
ness and  accuracy  what  you  have  observed.  Imagine  nothing; 
just  ''stopy  look,  listen.'*     Here  are  suggestive  titles: 

1.  Watching  a  match  burn.  2.  A  little  experiment  in  chemis- 
try. 3.  How  night  comes.  4.  What  the  hens  did.  5.  Kin- 
dling a  fire.  6.  Watching  a  spider.  7.  The  hardworking  ant. 
8.    A  honey  bee  at  work.     9.    The  ways  of  goldfish.     10.    How 


162  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

the  storm  began.  11.  Ten  minutes  in  the  life  of  my  dog. 
12.  Watching  a  fellow  pupil.  13.  The  clerk,  doing  up  a  parcel. 
14.  How  sister  telephones.  15.  Watching  little  sister  play. 
16.  The  traffic  policeman.  17.  Catching  a  fish.  18.  Father 
cranks  the  car.  19.  A  newsboy  selling  papers.  20.  The  um- 
pire makes  an  unpopular  decision. 

EXERCISE  14 

Facing  page  164  is  a  reproduction  of  a  water-color  sketch. 
The  view  that  it  pictures  is  so  simple  that  it  should  prove 
easy  to  describe.  The  main  objects,  of  course,  are  the  boats. 
It  is  to  these  that  the  eye  is  directed  first  of  all,  and  the  eye 
does  not  leave  them  till  it  has  noted  many  things,  particu- 
larly the  shadows.  Next,  perhaps,  we  are  attracted  by  the 
water,  its  surface  almost  like  that  of  a  mirror,  and  the  shore 
which  bounds  the  little  cove  where  the  boats  are  moored. 
Then  perhaps  we  note  the  group  of  buildings  in  the  back- 
ground, and  the  sky  full  of  huge  puffs  of  white.  What  time 
of  year  is  it?  What  time  of  day?  Is  the  water  fresh  or 
salt?  Has  the  artist  tried  to  emphasize  some  one  thing? 
What  would  be  an  appropriate  title  for  the  picture? 

Write  a  description  of  this  sceney  employing  about  two 
hundred  words.     Don't  forget  the  colors, 

EXERCISE  15 

Think  of  some  place  out  of  doors  which  interests  you  ex- 
ceedingly,  a  place  you  like  to  visit  over  and  over  again.  Z)e- 
scribe  it  from  memory. 

You  will  be  more  successful,  perhaps,  if  you  imagine  you 
are  writing  to  a  friend.  Try  not  only  to  make  him  see  what 
you  describe,  but  to  like  it  as  well  as  you  do.  Here  are 
hints : 

1.  Have  a  plan.  Probably  it  will  be  best  to  mention  the 
large,  striking  things  first,  then  sketch  in  the  details;  but 
you  may  think  of  a  better  way. 


PICTURING  163 

2.  Give  your  picture  unity.  Keep  in  mind  some  par- 
ticular kind  of  day,  some  season  of  the  year,  some  particular 
kind  of  weather.  Do  not  shift  your  view-point  without 
giving  notice. 

3.  Make  the  description  easy  to  follow  by  introducing 
guide  words  and  guide  phrases,  such  as  at  the  extreme  left, 
a  little  beyond,  nearer  at  hand,  turning  now  till  you  face  the 
east. 

4.  Remember  that  you  have  five  senses,  and  that  all  five 
may  be  employed  if  the  description  calls  for  it.  A  descrip- 
tion of  the  seashore,  for  example,  might  register  the  shore- 
line of  a  bay,  the  color  of  the  water,  the  "feel"  of  the  hard, 
sun-warmed  rock  on  which  you  may  be  sitting,  the  sound  of 
the  breakers  pounding  on  the  shingle,  the  smell  of  the  sea- 
weed drying  at  your  feet,  and  even  the  taste  of  the  salty 
spray  that  dampens  your  face. 

Here  are  suggestive  titles:  1.  Our  swimming-hole.  2.  A 
deserted  lumber  camp.  3.  A  corner  of  a  city  park.  4.  Where 
the  old  highway  once  ran.  5.  The  wharf.  6.  A  nook  in  the 
woods.  7.  A  flower  garden.  8.  A  trout  pool.  9.  The  orchard. 
10.  A  wayside  watering-trough.  11.  The  parade  ground. 
12.  The  mill  pond.  13.  The  school  yard.  14.  The  picnic 
grounds. 

EXERCISE   16 

"The  king,"  writes  Kipling  in  one  of  his  stories,  "was 
dressed  in  a  purple  velvet  jacket,  white  muslin  trousers,  and 
a  saffron-yellow  turban  of  price."  This  one  sentence  of 
less  than  twenty  words  presents  a  fairly  good  portrait, 
though  it  tells  merely  how  the  king  was  dressed.  In  one 
of  Dickens's  stories  we  find  the  following  sentence:  "Except 
on  the  crown,  which  was  raggedly  bald,  he  had  stiff,  black 
hair,  standing  jaggedly  all  over  it  [his  head],  and  growing 
down-hill  almost  to  his  broad,  blunt  nose."  This  also  is 
good  description,  yet  it  includes   but  one  or  two  of  the 


164  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

many  particulars  necessary  for  a  complete  portrait.  More 
nearly  complete  is  the  following,  in  which  many  items  are 
given,  including  a  few  which  have  to  do  with  character  or 
personality:  "He  is  forty-six,  a  shy,  gentle  little  man,  seldom 
speaking,  blushing  when  applauded,  stuttering  if  suddenly 
accosted,  and  dismayed  when  people  call  him  *  master.'  He 
wears  a  close-fitting  frock  coat.  He  is  as  bald  as  an  egg;  his 
cheeks  are  bordered  with  a  short  gray  beard;  his  strong, 
straight  nose  carries  a  pair  of  thick,  round  glasses,  and  the 
eyes  that  look  through  them  are  mild  and  a  trifle  worried." 
Finally,  here  is  a  portrait  by  a  high  school  girl.  It  is 
patterned  after  one  found  in  Chaucer's  Canterbury  TaleSy 
though  the  girl  pictured  is  a  real  person.     Do  you  like  it? 

There  was  also  in  this  company  a  Westerner,  a  girl  about 
twenty  years  of  age.  Her  eyes  were  black  as  night,  and  sparkled 
with  joy  and  merriment  under  dark  lashes.  Her  teeth  were 
even  and  pearly,  and  when  her  red  lips  parted  in  a  smile,  no 
one  could  resist  her.  She  was  mounted  on  a  broncho,  and  from 
the  pommel  of  her  saddle  dangled  a  lasso.  Her  face,  tanned 
by  sun  and  wind,  was  framed  with  dark  hair  which  looked  almost 
black.  On  her  head  she  wore  a  gray  felt  hat,  turned  up  on 
one  side,  in  which  a  red  feather  was  stuck  jauntily.  She  was 
dressed  in  khaki  skirt  and  middy  blouse.  From  beneath  her 
skirt  could  be  seen  just  the  tip  of  her  tan  riding  boot.  Around 
her  waist  was  a  cartridge  belt,  containing  a  six-shooter.  She 
wore  no  jewelry  except  a  curious  old  Indian  pin  at  her  neck. 
As  she  rode,  she  looked  the  perfect  picture  of  ease  and  grace. 

Word  portraits,  good  ones,  are  difficult  to  make.  It  is 
not  a  simple  matter  to  pick  out  distinguishing  character- 
istics, nor  to  find  just  the  right  words  with  which  to  picture 
the  characteristics.  Memory,  too,  plays  an  important  part. 
You  cannot  always  remember,  on  the  spur  of  the  moment, 
the  details  needed  for  a  complete  portrait  even  of  one  whom 
you  know  intimately.  But  ability  to  picture  people  is  of  prac- 
tical value,  as  a  little  thought  will  probably  convince  you. 


VHP" 


m 


'tOHMHSH 


h 


By  Koch 


Copyrighted  by  the  Prang  Publishing  Co. 
A  Water-color 


By  Verneer  Reprinted  by  permission  of  the  Metropolitan  Museum 

Young  Woman  Opening  A  Casement 


PICTURING  165 

In  an  earlier  exercise  you  were  asked  to  contribute  to  a 
collection  of  miscellaneous  pictures  gathered  on  the  way  to 
school.  A  little  later  you  brought  articles  —  descriptions  of 
them  —  for  what  might  have  been  called  a  rummage  sale. 
Now  for  an  album  of  portraits,  or  shall  we  call  it  a  grand  as- 
sembly of  people,  our  guests  for  a  single  hour? 

Tomorrow  let  each  member  of  the  class  bring ,  in  the  form  of  a 
word  'portrait  of  not  more  than  fifteen  lines,  a  friend  or  a  chance 
acquaintance,  or  even  a  total  stranger.  All  the  people  must  be 
real,  none  imaginary ^  and  there  must  be  no  impolite  exaggera- 
tion such  as  the  playful  cartoonist  is  privileged  to  enjoy.  You 
need  not  try  to  exclude  details  which  may  reveal  the  person's 
character. 


EXERCISE  17 

Facing  this  page  is  a  reproduction  of  a  painting  entitled 
Young  Woman  Opening  a  Casement.  It  is  by  the  Dutch 
artist  Vermeer.  Study  it  carefully.  Isn't  the  young  woman 
quaintly  dressed.'*  Why  is  she  opening  the  casement?  Are 
there  flowers  on  a  window  ledge  to  be  watered  from  the 
pitcher?  Can  it  be  that  the  water  is  intended  for  a 
passer-by,  or  is  there  no  trace  of  mischief  in  her  counte- 
nance? Notice  how  careful  the  artist  has  been  of  every  de- 
tail. Study  the  table  spread,  for  example,  and  the  casement. 
What  is  the  blue  garment  thrown  over  the  back  of  the 
chair?  Why  did  the  artist  include  the  ugly  wall  map? 
Can  it  be  that  it  was  his  custom  to  paint  homely  scenes 
just  as  they  are,  and  because  he  found  a  map  on  the  wall  he 
thought  it  should  remain  there?  Where  does  the  light  come 
from  and  what  does  it  throw  into  prominence?  What  do 
you  like  most  of  all  in  the  picture? 

Come  tomorrow  prepared  to  help  your  classmates  to  plan 
a  description  of  this  picture.  The  title  of  the  picture  furnishes 
a  hint  concerning  how  the  description  might  begin. 


166  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

EXERCISE  18 

Facing  page  180  is  a  colored  illustration  by  Rockwell,  whose 
magazine  covers  and  posters  no  doubt  have  often  made  you 
smile.  Surely  you  will  find  little  difficulty  in  describing  it. 
Study  the  countenances,  the  postures,  the  costumes.  Don't 
forget  the  home  plate.     Twenty  lines  should  prove  sufficient. 

EXERCISE  19 

Here  is  a  picture-narrative  to  study,  one  of  thousands 
which  have  appeared  in  books  and  newspapers  reporting 
scenes  on  the  field  of  battle.  It  tells  of  the  moving  forward 
of  troops  in  preparation  for  a  fresh  drive  following  a  victory. 

It  is  an  astounding  pageant,  these  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
men  —  English,  Welsh,  Canadians,  Scottish,  and  Australians 
—  all  moving  in  a  long  reaching  tide  with  horses  and  guns  and 
transport  along  tracks  over  old  battlefields,  going  forward 
mile  by  mile  very  slowly  because  of  the  surge  of  traffic  over 
narrow  ways,  but  never  stopping. 

Dust  rises  from  the  moving  legions  in  brownish  clouds  which 
the  wind  tosses  above  their  steel  helmets,  and  through  this 
dust,  in  which  the  sun  is  shining  hotly,  there  is  a  vision  of  brown 
masses  of  men  with  the  glint  of  steel  on  rifles  and  helmets,  and 
twinkling  colors,  red  and  blue  and  green,  of  staff  badges  and 
pensions. 

Every  man  marches  in  a  white  mask  of  dust  through  which 
his  eyes  shine.  Dispatch  riders  are  threading  their  way  through 
long  lines  of  transport.  The  endless  columns  of  lorries,  field 
batteries,  and  gun  horses  are  grotesque,  like  millers  all  floured 
from  head  to  feet.  The  horses  are  supers  and  in  splendid  form, 
as  though  from  an  exhibition,  and  it  goes  to  the  heart  to  see 
so  many  lying  dead  on  the  fields  after  recent  battles. 

There  is  a  great  music  of  war  over  all  this  scene.  Scottish 
battalions  go  forward  to  the  fighting  line  led  part  of  the  way  by 
their  pipers,  and  across  the  battlefields  come  the  wild  cry  of 


PICTURING  167 

the  pibroch  and  the  drone  of  many  pipes.  The  English  bat- 
tahons  are  marching  with  brass  bands  playing  old  English 
marching  tunes,  and,  between  whiles,  merry  bursts  of  ragtime. 
The  crunching  of  gun  wheels  over  rough  ground,  officers  shout- 
ing orders  to  their  men,  the  hooting  of  lorry  horns,  and  an 
incessant  hum  of  airplanes  overhead  all  make  up  a  symphony 
which  has  a  song  of  triumph  in  its  theme. 

Philip  Gibbs,  in  the  New  York  Times 

Do  you  like  the  description.?  In  what  respects  is  it  better, 
probably,  than  anything  you  could  have  written  had  you 
been  a  war  correspondent  viewing  the  same  scene?  What 
is  a  pageant.?  What  is  a  symphony?  Did  Mr.  Gibbs  record 
his  impressions  just  as  he  received  them,  or  follow  a  definite 
plan?  In  other  exercises  you  were  advised  to  begin  with 
big,  striking  things,  then  sketch  in  details.  Is  such  a  method 
apparent  in  this  description?  Either  through  quick  sug- 
gestion, as  in  such  single  words  as  tide  and  surgCy  or  through 
direct  comparisons,  an  attempt  is  made  in  a  number  of 
places  to  help  the  reader's  imagination.  How  many  such 
places  do  you  find?  Can  you  find  a  place  where  a  few  words 
of  explanation  have  been  inserted?  Has  Mr.  Gibbs  simply 
recorded  color,  form,  movement,  sound,  without  at  any 
point  revealing  his  emotions?  One  secret  of  success  in 
writing  description  lies  in  the  care  with  which  words  are 
chosen.  Pick  out  a  few  well-chosen  words.  Pick  out,  in 
the  last  paragraph,  all  the  words  that  help  to  suggest  the 
sounds  that  are  being  recorded.  Pretty,  flowery  language 
spoils  a  description;  for  the  reader  thinks  the  writer  may  be 
less  desirous  of  picturing  things  than  of  showing  what  a  fine 
writer  he  is.  Does  Mr.  Gibbs  tend  strictly  to  the  business 
of  producing  a  clear  impression  of  all  that  his  eye  and  his 
ear  recorded? 

Difficult  as  is  a  pageant-symphony  description  like  the 
one  presented  by  Mr.  Gibbs  —  that  is,  a  vivid  account  of 
everythiQg  recorded  by  the  eye  and  the  ear  of  one  before 


168  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

whom  a  throng  is  moving  —  young  people  are  better  at 
it,  oftentimes,  than  their  elders.  The  reason  is  not  far  to 
seek.  The  young  have  keener  senses.  Their  interest  is 
greater;  the  world  is  newer  to  them.  It  is  great  to  be  still 
young. 

Write  an  account  patterned  after  that  of  Mr.  Gihhs,  making 
it  as  vivid  as  your  keeUy  youthful  senses  can.  Select^  if  possible, 
from  the  following  list  of  titles: 

1.  The  gathering  of  a  crowd  at  a  game.  2.  When  the  school 
meets  in  the  assembly  hall.  3.  Circus  day.  4.  A  busy  city 
thoroughfare.  5.  The  departure  of  a  ship.  6.  A  harvest 
scene.  7.  The  coming  of  a  storm.  8.  When  the  train  comes 
in.  9.  Recess.  10.  Lunch  time.  11.  At  the  mihtary  camp. 
12.  The  parade.  13.  Watching  the  bulletins.  14.  A  street 
accident.     15.    The  crowd  at  the  **  movies." 

Avoid  "fine"  language;  get  right  down  to  the  real  busi- 
ness of  doing  a  difficult  task  well.  Do  not  try  to  keep 
yourself  out.  What  is  desired  is  an  account  of  a  scene 
as  it  impressed  you,  a  young  person.  Above  all  things, 
do  not  try  to  be  a  "grown-up";   be  yourself. 


We  will  now  cull  out  and  rearrange  the  hints  and  sug- 
gestions scattered  through  the  exercises  of  this  Course, 
combining  them  into  a  brief  composition. 

The  Art  of  Picturing 

The  title  is  not  a  perfect  one;  for  description  really  includes 
whatever  is  recorded  by  any  of  the  senses.  Thus  we  might  try 
to  describe  the  form,  color,  and  movement  of  an  aeroplane,  the 
faint  sounds  that  filter  downward  when  geese  fly  north  in  early 
spring,  the  perfume  of  flowers,  the  flavor  of  fruits,  the  velvety 
feeling  of  a  tuft  of  moss.  But  sound,  perfume,  flavor,  and  the 
"feel  of  things"  are  so  difficult  to  express  through  language  that 
to  describe  commonly  means  little  more  than  to  picture. 


PICTURING  169 

1.   Getting 

Getting  and  giving,  gaining  complete  possession  and  sharing 
freely  with  others:  these  are  the  two  steps  in  successful  descrip- 
tion.    In  connection  with  getting,  five  suggestions  may  be  made. 

1.  Keep  alert.  Keep  all  your  senses  alert.  There  is  such  a 
thing  as  falling  into  the  habit  of  being  dull,  half-awake.  Rouse 
up!  "Poor  film,"  the  photographer  sometimes  explains  when 
your  pictures  do  not  come  out  well.  He  means  that  the  gelatine 
surface  of  the  roll  on  which  the  sunlight  prints  was  not  fresh  and 
sensitive.     Keep  your  mind  sensitive. 

2.  Take  a  good  look,  a  good  listen.  Merely  keeping  alert  is 
not  suflScient.  Make  the  "exposure,"  to  use  a  photographic 
term,  long  enough  for  a  clear  impression. 

3.  Memorize.  You  can  commit  to  memory  a  house  or  a  scene 
just  as  you  commit  a  poem.  After  the  good  long  look,  shut  your 
eyes  and  try  to  recall  in  detail  what  you  have  looked  upon.  Do 
this  again  and  again.  Don't  permit  yourself  to  fall  into  the  habit 
of  letting  your  pictures  fade  quickly  away.  "Fix"  them,  just  as 
the  photographer  "fixes"  the  negative  by  placing  it  in  a  certain 
chemical  bath. 

4.  Train  yourself  to  pick  out  marks  of  identification,  the  dis- 
tinguishing, characteristic  features;  for  you  cannot  hope  to  carry 
away  everything.  The  camera  misses  nothing,  but  you  are  not 
a  camera;  you  can  select. 

5.  There  is  a  fifth  point  very  difficult  to  talk  about.  To  take 
full  possession,  you  must  not  only  employ  all  five  senses,  and  study 
for  the  purpose  of  discovering  the  marks  of  identification,  but  also 
turn  loose  your  feelings,  as  we  call  them  in  common  speech.  You 
may  have  a  pretty  clear  mind- picture  of  a  Scotch  collie  whose 
acquaintance  you  have  recently  formed;  but  you  will  soon  have  a 
much  better  picture  if,  by  any  chance,  that  collie  becomes  yours  — 
your  constant  companion.  Mind-pictures  of  home  faces  become  far 
more  than  mere  photographs  when  a  boy  lies  wounded  in  a  hospital 
thousands  of  miles  away  from  home.  They  are  colored  with  the 
light  of  intense  longing  and  deepened  affection.  These  are  extreme 
illustrations;  but  there  is  such  a  thing  as  letting  the  emotions 
play  about  whatever  passes  before  the  eyes.  If  you  wish  full 
'oossession,  "let  yourself  go"  —  all  of  you:  senses,  mind,  emotions. 


170  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 


2.   Sharing  with  Others 


Now  for  the  difficult  yet  pleasant  task  of  sharing  with  others. 

1.  You  must  have  a  plan,  of  course.  It  may  be  possible  to 
follow  a  simple  time  sequence  as  in  telling  a  story;  or  a  space  se- 
quence, going  from  one  item  to  that  which  lies  next  to  it;  but 
frequently  the  best  plan  is  to  begin  with  the  large,  striking  things 
and  then  sketch  in  details,  supplying  the  imagination  with  ma- 
terial in  the  order  in  which  the  imagination  needs  it  in  building 
up  the  picture. 

2.  Try  to  give  your  description  unity.  There  are  many  ways. 
A  very  simple  way  is  to  keep  in  mind,  as  you  write  or  talk,  some 
one  person.  Another  way  is  to  try  to  emphasize  some  one  thing 
throughout,  just  as  the  photographer  oftentimes  focuses  his  camera 
and  arranges  his  lights  in  such  a  way  as  to  bring  into  prominence 
some  one  thing.  In  A  Tale  of  Two  Cities  Dickens  describes  the 
quarter  of  St.  Antoine  in  such  a  way  as  to  emphasize  poverty. 
Having  a  definite  purpose  of  this  kind  keeps  one  from  throwing 
out  items  in  hit-or-miss  fashion. 

3.  Help  the  imagination  in  every  way  you  can.  Do  this  by 
giving  many  details,  by  putting  in  little  guide-words  and  guide- 
phrases  to  aid  in  keeping  track  of  things,  by  slipping  in  an  ex- 
planatory sentence  now  and  then  if  it  is  needed,  and  by  employing 
many  comparisons. 

4.  Choose  your  words  with  great  care.  There  are  picture- 
bringing  words,  if  you  will  but  search  for  them,  so  much  better, 
it  may  be,  than  the  first  that  pop  into  your  mind.  Above  all, 
avoid  flowery  speech — "fine  language,"  employed  with  the  de- 
finite purpose  of  **prettifjang"  a  composition.  A  rough,  crude 
picture,  like  a  charcoal  sketch  made  on  a  shingle,  is  better  than 
an  elaborate  product  that  is  not  sincere. 

5.  Finally,  remember  that  you  are  not  sharing  absolutely, 
with  big-hearted  generosity,  unless  your  picture  is  frankly  colored 
with  your  emotions.  Something  of  yourself  must  go  with  the 
picture.  This  may  not  be  true  of  scientific  description,  where 
accuracy  alone  is  desired,  but  in  the  type  of  description  you  most 
commonly  employ  it  is  a  great  mistake  to  keep  yourself  out  alto- 
gether. 


DRILL  EXERCISES 


PRONUNCIATION 


Thy  pth,  and  ngth  are  combinations  hard  for  some  tongues. 
The  dictionary  will  help  little  in  mastering  them.  Listen 
attentively  while  your  teacher  pronounces  the  following. 
Perhaps,  unconsciously,  you  may  have  been  mispronouncing 
some  of  these  common  words.  Pronounce  them  after  the 
teacher. 


thousand 

throat 

through 

Thursday 

threw 

thought 

with 

together 

diphtheria 

diphthong 

length 

strength 

width 

breadth 

father 

mother 

The  first  syllable  of  Italian  does  not  rhyme  with  pie.  It 
is  pronounced  like  the  first  syllable  of  Italy.  In  evily  hostile , 
reptile^  and  juvenile,  the  last  syllable  rhymes  with  bill.  The 
last  syllable  of  genuine  rhymes  with  bin. 

Read  this  sentence:  A  genuine  evil  Italian  reptile  is  hostile 
to  juveniles. 

Pure  is  never  mispronounced.  Try  to  give  u  the  same  sound 
in  the  following: 


Tuesday 

enthusiasm 

avenue 

tube 

blue 

altitude 

annual 

stupid 

solitude 

tutor 

latitude 

picture 

student 

duke 

duel 

peculiar 

produce 

rude 
171 

tuition 

truth 

172 


JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 


SPELLING 


Inability  to  distinguish  between  words  that  are  similar 
sometimes  leads  to  embarrassing  mistakes.  There  is  a  wide 
difference  between  a  hony  lass  and  a  honny  lass.  Later  and 
latter  do  not  mean  the  same  thing. 

First  'pronounce  the  following  words,  then  note  how  they  are 
spelled.  Write  sentences  in  which  they  are  so  employed  as  to 
show  that  you  understand  their  meaning. 

bony  bonny  later  latter 

striped  stripped  corps 

coma  comma  suit 


human 


comma 
humane 


desert 


corpse 

suite 

dessert 


2 

Here  are  homonyms,  as  they  are  called,  or  words  that  are 
pronounced  alike  but  spelled  differently.  Write  sentences  in 
which  they  are  correctly  employed. 


aisle 

isle 

scene 

seen 

pair 

pear 

steal 

steel 

pane 

pain 

soar 

sore 

waste 

waist 

straight 

strait 

berth 

birth 

ascent 

assent 

shone 

shown 

cereal 

serial 

Copy  the  following  sentences,  retaining  in  each  but  one  of 
the  homonyms  found  in  parenthesis.  Do  not  guess;  when  in 
doubt  concerning  the  meaning  of  a  word,  look  it  up.  Having 
looked  up  the  meaning,  try  to  fix  it  in  your  mind. 

1.  He  purchased  a  (bale  bail)  of  cotton.  2.  Let's  (bale 
bail)  out  the  boat.  3.  The  prisoner  is  out  on  (bale  bail). 
4.    A  (peal  peel)  of  laughter  was  heard.    5.    Remove  the  (peal 


DRILL  EXERCISES  17S 

peel)  before  eating  the  orange.  6.  The  (sealing  ceiling)  fell 
as  he  was  (ceiling  sealing)  the  letter.  7.  He  (pores  pours) 
the  water  into  the  glass.  8.  The  (pores  pours)  of  the  skin 
must  be  kept  open.  9.  He  removed  his  (fir  fur)  gloves  while 
standing  near  the  (fur  fir)  tree.  10.  Her  (mantel  mantle) 
was  trimmed  with  (fir  fur).  11.  Over  the  fireplace  was  a  narrow 
(mantel  mantle).  12.  The  gas  burner  needs  a  new  (mantel 
mantle).  13.  (Currant  current)  expenses  were  met  by  volun- 
tary subscriptions.  14.  We  had  (currant  current)  jelly  roll 
for  supper.     15.    The  stream's  (currant  current)   was  swift. 


Copy  the  following  sentences,  retaining  in  each  hut  one  of 
the  words  found  in  parenthesis. 

1.  (Miners  minors)  cannot  vote.  2.  The  (miner  minor) 
wears  a  lamp  in  his  cap.  3.  My  objections  are  but  (miner 
minor)  ones.  4.  He  played  in  a  (miner  minor)  key.  5.  The 
two  counts  fought  a  (dual  duel).  6.  Hartford  High  and  New 
Britain  High  held  a  (dual  duel)  meet.  7.  Whatever  is  (sta- 
tionary stationery)  remains  in  one  place  or  position.  8.  By 
(stationary  stationery)  I  mean  envelopes  and  note  paper. 
9.  The  horse  wears  a  (bridal  bridle).  10.  A  (bridal  bridle) 
party  is  a  wedding  party.  11.  To  (altar  alter)  anything  is  to 
change  it.  12.  If  we  wish  to  see  an  (altar  alter),  we  must  go 
to  church.  13.  We  consult  a  (calendar  calender)  to  see  what 
day  of  the  month  it  is.  14.  A  (calendar  calender)  is  a  machine 
used  in  making  cloth  and  paper.  15.  Tom  won  a  (medal 
meddle).  16.  Little  children  must  not  (medal  meddle).  17. 
Is  it  made  of  wood  or  of  (metal  mettle)?  18.  Boys,  show  your 
(metal  mettle)  by  winning  the  game. 

PUNCTUATION 

Rule.  —  Commas  are  used  in  setting  off  a  non-restrictive 
clause  or  phrase. 

This  troublesome  rule  becomes  very  simple  when  once 
understood.     The  difficulty  lies  in  the  word  non-restrictive. 


174  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

Let  us,  then,  master  this  word.  Note  the  following  sen- 
tences : 

The  cadets  who  were  in   uniform   were   invited   to  join   the 

parade. 
The  cadets,  who  were   in   uniform,  were  invited  to  join  the 

parade. 

Were  all  the  cadets  in  uniform?  Were  all  invited  to  join 
the  parade?  According  to  the  first  sentence,  some  of  the 
cadets  may  not  have  been  in  uniform;  only  those  in  uni- 
form were  invited  to  parade.  The  invitation  was  limited 
—  restricted  —  to  a  part  of  the  cadets.  The  clause  who 
were  in  uniform  does  the  restricting.  It  is  a  restrictive 
clause.  We  do  not  set  it  off;  it  belongs  with  the  word 
cadets,  modifying  or  limiting  it  closely,  like  an  adjective. 
In  the  second  sentence,  apparently  all  the  cadets  were  in- 
vited. Just  as  a  matter  of  added  information,  it  is  stated 
that  they  were  in  uniform,  or  the  clause  may  have  been  used 
to  explain  why  the  cadets  were  invited.  The  invitation  is 
in  no  way  confined,  restricted.  The  clause  is  not  restrictive 
but  parenthetical,  explanatory,  non-restrictive.  That  is 
why  it  is  set  off  by  commas.  The  commas  are  necessary 
to  make  the  meaning  clear. 

Pupils   having  a  daily   average   of  ninety   were   excused    from 

examinations. 
Ethel,    having   a   daily   average   of  ninety,   was   excused   from 

examinations. 

Here  we  have  phrases  instead  of  clauses.  In  the  first 
sentence  the  phrase  is  restrictive.  It  shuts  out  all  but  a 
few  —  the  few  who  had  a  daily  average  of  ninety.  In  the 
second  sentence  the  phrase  is  explaijatory,  not  restrictive. 
It  explains  why  Ethel  was  excused  from  examinations. 
Because  the  phrase  is  explanatory  and  not  restrictive,  it  is 
set  off. 


DRILL  EXERCISES  175 


Which  of  the  italicized  phrases  and  clauses  are  restrictive? 
Punctuate  the  sentences, 

1.  Emily  having  the  highest  mark  was  given  the  prize.  2. 
Give  this  to  the  girl  having  the  highest  mark.  S.  The  boy  who 
tries  hard  deserves  success.  4.  Jim  who  tries  hard  deserves 
success.  5.  The  one  boy  who  was  frightened  ran  away.  6. 
The  boy  who  probably  was  never  more  frightened  in  his  life  ran 
away.  7.  The  gentleman  whom  you  saw  just  now  is  Mr.  Arm- 
strong. 8.  Mr.  Armstrong  whom  you  saw  just  now  is  a  Second 
Lieutenant.  9.  They  were  looking  curiously  at  the  gentleman 
wearing  a  green  coat.  10.  He  marched  with  Jim  and  Pete  wear- 
ing his  green  coat.  11.  The  gain  that  is  made  at  the  expense  of 
reputation  should  be  considered  a  loss.  12.  This  gain  since  it 
was  made  at  the  expense  of  reputation  should  be  considered  a 
loss.  13.  Mary  wanted  a  hat  like  Kate's.  14.  Mary's  hat 
like  Kate's  was  trimmed  with  blue.  15.  Have  those  whom 
I  told  to  do  the  deed  returned?  16.  Have  Arthur  and  Edgar 
whom  I  told  to  do  the  deed  returned?  17.  My  friend  proposed 
that  we  should  alight  and  walk  through  the  park  to  the  hall 
which  was  at  no  great  distance.  18.  Lights  from  the  hall  which 
was  at  no  great  distance  gleamed  through  the  trees.  19.  This 
law  was  passed  largely  through  the  efforts  of  the  farmers  whom 
it  is  benefiting.  20.  DeSoto  who  died  of  fever  on  the  expedition 
was  buried  in  the  river  which  he  had  discovered. 

Rule.  —  A  comma  is  sometimes  necessary  before  and,  but, 
for,  or,  nor,  as,  because,  and  other  connectives,  to  make  the 
meaning  of  the  sentence  quickly  apparent. 

This,  like  the  preceding  rule,  calls  for  thought;  it  cannot 
be  applied  blindly.  Examine  the  following  sentences, 
noting  the  effect  of  the  punctuation: 

1.  Oranges  were  given  to  Mary  and  Ellen   and  Edith  re- 

ceived candy. 

2.  Oranges  were  given  to  Mary,  and  Ellen  and  Edith  re- 

ceived candy. 


176  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

3.  Oranges  were  given  to  Mary  and  Ellen,  and  Edith  received 

candy. 

4.  He  went  disguised  as  the  King  had  requested. 

5.  He  went  disguised,  as  the  King  had  requested. 

6.  He  ran  as  fast  as  he  could  for  the  boat  left  promptly  at 

five. 

7.  He  ran  as  fast  as  he  could,  for  the  boat  left  promptly  at 

five. 

In  the  first  sentence  there  is  no  way  of  telling  how  the 
oranges  and  candy  were  distributed.  In  the  next  two  sen- 
tences the  comma  explains  very  definitely  how  the  dis- 
tribution was  made.  Asy  in  the  fourth,  might  mean  in  the 
manner  that.  As  in  the  fifth  has  the  force  of  because.  This 
the  comma  tells  us.  In  reading  the  sixth,  the  eye  hastens 
along  till  it  reaches  boat;  then  it  discovers  that  for  the  boat 
does  not  go  with  ran  as  fast  as  he  could  but  with  left  promptly 
at  five.  All  is  plain  in  the  seventh;  the  comma  before /or 
warns  that  a  new  clause  is  coming. 

From  these  examples,  and  from  examples  found  under 
previous  rules,  we  rightly  conclude  that  one  of  the  main  uses 
of  the  comma  is  to  separate  words  or  groups  of  words  which 
do  not  belong  together.  They  warn  the  reader  to  pause, 
whenever  he  is  in  danger  of  rushing  ahead  and  blunder- 
ing. They  are  like  the  signs  commonly  posted  along  our 
thoroughfares  for  the  benefit  of  automobilists :  "Sharp 
curve  ahead,"  "Take  the  right-hand  road  for  Blanktown,'* 
"Railroad  crossing  two  hundred  feet  ahead,"  "Schoolhouse 
ahead;  go  slowly,"  etc. 


Punctuate  such  of  the  following  as  you  think  require  it, 

1.  For  lunch  we  had  bread  and  butter  and  nothing  else 
could  have  pleased  me  more.  2.  I  got  a  man  and  a  rifle  and 
together  we  hiked  four  miles  and  got  the  report  to  the  Colonel. 
3.   It  was  no  use  to  argue  the  point  for  she  had  a  very  small 


DRILL  EXERCISES  177 

head.  4.  He  liked  none  but  the  first  and  the  last  of  the  songs 
pleased  me  very  much.  5.  He  wears  a  dark  blue  Russian  blouse 
trimmed  with  gilt  buttons  and  dark  blue  knickerbockers.  6. 
Remember  that  water  is  likely  to  spread  the  flames  from  gaso- 
line and  kerosene  and  is  not  to  be  relied  on  for  extinguishing 
fires.  7.  Never  tamper  with  the  gas  meter  and  do  not  pile 
up  kindlings  wood  paper  or  other  inflammable  material  near 
it.  8.  The  glass  of  the  skylight  was  dashed  into  a  thousand 
pieces  and  a  man  leaped  through  and  landed  on  the  floor. 
9.  They  were  looking  for  some  one  who  wanted  a  carriage  or 
a  trunk  carried  to  the  depot. 


COURSE  VI 

COMPOSITION 

Business  English 
Letters  and  forms 
Reports 
Good  manners  in  the  business  world 

DRILL 

Pronunciation 

Common  words  often  mispronounced 
Correct  placing  of  accent 
Common  French  words 

Spelling  ^ 

Business  terms 
Words  employed  in  correspondence 

Punctuation 

The  semicolon 


By  Rockavf.ll  Copyright  by  Life  Pub.  Co. 

An  American  Missionary  in  France 


By  Waltz 


M()(TNI  1  r    CiAKI.E.S 

in  roliiiar.    Alsace 


BUSINESS  ENGLISH 

This  is  a  specimen  of  business  English  —  a  bill  presented 
by  a  very  small  boy  to  his  father.  It  suggests,  what  is 
doubtless  true,  that  in  our  commercially  great  country  we 
**go  into  business"  at  an  early  age. 

The  bill  made  out  by  Mr.  H.  B.  Hicks  (more  commonly 
known  to  the  neighborhood  as  Harold)  has  one  good  feature. 
It  is  polite.  Notice  the  respect  to  an  elder  shown  in 
Dear  Sir,  and  the  recognition  of  the  fact  that  there  are  times 
when  paying  for  services  rendered  is  not  at  all  *'plesent.'* 
In  other  respects,  however,  Harold's  bill  will  hardly  serve 
as  a  model.     Here  is  a  better  one: 

Model  1 

8  Amity  St.,  Hartford,  Conn. 
Sept.  10,  1919 
Mr.  Arthur  R.  Thompson 

To  Mark  L.  Thompson,  Dr. 

Aug.  1    Hoeing  garden  4  hrs  at  .15  .60 

"   4    Mowing  lawn  .50 

"  11    Washing  car  .75 

"  20    Cleaning  cellar  2  hrs  at  .15  ,30 


S2.15 
Received  payment, 
181 


182  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

A  bill  is  but  a  letter  with  all  unnecessary  words  omitted, 
for  in  the  business  world  time  is  very  valuable.  There  is 
no  polite  Salutation,  no  Leave-taking.  When  Mark  re- 
ceipts his  bill  by  signing  his  name,  he  may  add  a  polite 
Thank  yoUy  but  even  this  is  not  necessary.  Note,  however, 
that  nothing  is  omitted  which  Mr.  Thompson  would  wish 
to  know  before  paying  Mark. 

EXERCISE  1 

Answer  the  following  questions: 

1.  Does  the  Heading  in  Mark's  bill  differ  in  any  way  from 
the  Heading  in  a  social  letter?  2.  What  does  Dr.  mean? 
3.  What  do  you  observe  in  regard  to  the  use  of  capitals  and 
punctuation?  4.  Why  is  each  item  placed  on  a  separate  line? 
5.  Is  anything  gained  by  placing  the  decimal  point  before  the 
various  sums?  6.  Are  the  decimal  and  the  dollar  signs  really 
necessary  in  the  total? 

Make  out  a  similar  bill  for  services  rendered^  inventing 
appropriate  items.  Try  hard  to  make  the  bill  a  model.  This 
will  call  for  care  in  spacing  and  neatness  in  penmanship. 

EXERCISE  2 

Model  2  shows  a  bill  such  as  a  business  house  sends  out. 
Everything  is  printed  that  can  be  —  the  firm's  name  and 
address,  the  words  Sold  Toy  and  the  lines  lower  down  form- 
ing separate  compartments  for  dates,  items  of  purchase, 
and  sums.  Even  in  receipting  the  bill,  a  stamp  with  an 
adjustable  dating  device  is  employed;  so  the  clerk  does 
not  have  to  use  a  pen  at  all  except  in  signing  his  initials, 
which,  in  the  case  of  Model  2,  are  M.  M.  Notice  that  in 
the  typewritten  part  of  the  bill  the  purchaser's  name  and 
address  are  given  in  full.  Compare  Models  1  and  2.  In 
how  many  respects  do  they  differ? 


BUSINESS  ENGLISH 


183 


Model  2 

G.  F.  WAKEFIELD  &  CO. 

TBookatUttfi  anti  dtationer0 
77  and  79  Harbor  Street,  Hartford,  Conn. 


Oct.  1.  1919 


SOLD 

TO  Mr.  Arthur  R.  Thompson 

23  Amity  St. 

Hartford,   Conn. 

Sept. 

8 

1  Home  Fires  in  France 

1.35 

II 

1  Astronomy  with  the  Naked  Eye 

1.40 

II 

1  Home  Book  of  Verse 

7.00 

Sept 

9 

1  Community  Civics 

Received  payment 

Oct.  10.  1919 

G.  F.  WAKEFIELD  &  CO. 

By  M,  M. 

1.00 
10.75 

Pretending  that  you  are  a  merchant^  make  out  a  bill  for 
goods  sold  to  an  imaginary  customer.  Begin  by  inventing  an 
appropriate  billhead.     Take  pains  with  the  ruling. 


EXERCISE  3 

If  you  were  to  make  a  study  of  the  bills  sent  out  by  a 
hundred  different  houses,  it  is  probable  that  you  would 
find  many  little  variations  from  the  two  models  shown, 
each  fitting  the  requirements  of  a  particular  line  of  business. 
The  models,  nevertheless,  are  safe  ones  to  follow;  they 
represent  forms  widely  adopted. 

Get  from  your  parents  or  from  some  other  source  a  number 
of  bills  and  study  them  to  see  how  they  differ.  If  you  are 
permitted  to  do  so,  bring  them  to  class  and  point  out  the  pe- 


184  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

culiarities  you  have  discovered.  Otherwise,  come  to  class  pre- 
pared  to  talk  about  them,  illustrating  by  means  of  forms  placed 
on  the  blackboard. 

The  bill  from  G.  P.  Wakefield  &  Co.  is  receipted,  showing 
that  it  has  been  paid.  The  date  of  payment,  you  will  ob- 
serve, is  given  and  also  the  initials  of  the  clerk  who  received 
the  remittance.  If  Model  2  were  a  perfect  reproduction, 
the  initials  M.  M.  would  be  penned;  for  though  a  rubber 
stamp  is  commonly  used  in  receipting  bills,  the  initials  of 
the  one  who  receives  the  money  or  the  check  are  always 
written.  Most  bills  are  paid  by  check.  Here  is  a  picture 
of  one  that  has  been  filled  out. 


©^ 


OF  HARTFORD 


:ifi^ 


18- 
■-|«o 


jq^ (ktfi....  "R.T€.<m«j«oio 


It  is,  like  the  bill,  a  letter  of  a  kind  so  often  used  that  a 
large  part  of  it  is  printed.  TKis  check-letter  asks  the  bank 
where  Mr.  Thompson  deposits  his  money  to  pay  the  amount 
of  the  bill  to  G.  F.  Wakefield  &  Co.  The  number  in  the 
left-hand  upper  corner  is  merely  for  Mr.  Thompson's  con- 
venience in  keeping  track  of  his  expenditures;  everything 
else  on  the  face  of  the  check  explains  itself.  The  check  is 
sent  to  Wakefield  &  Co.,  who  take  it  to  the  bank  and  re- 
ceive their  money,  first  "endorsing**  it  by  writing  the  firm 
name  across  the  back,  near  the  left-hand  end.  This  endorse- 
ment is  a  receipt.  Since  money  is  involved,  care  in  filling 
out  checks  is  of  the  utmost  importance.    The  names  should 


BUSINESS  ENGLISH  185 

be  written  plainly.  To  guard  against  fraud,  it  is  best  to 
fill  completely  the  line  on  which  the  sum  is  written.  It  is 
for  the  same  purpose  that  the  sum  to  be  paid  appears  a 
second  time. 

Suppose  a  dishonest  person  should  get  possession  of  blank 
checks  and  fill  them  out.  Could  he  use  them  in  buying 
goods  or  obtaining  money?  Not  easily,  for  checks  are  not 
accepted  from  strangers,  as  a  rule.  When  you  are  actually 
engaged  in  business,  you  will  soon  learn  how  to  pay  for 
goods  purchased  from  firms  not  acquainted  with  you, 
without  actually  sending  the  money.  For  the  present  it  is 
enough  to  remind  you  that  you  can  go  to  any  post-office  and 
buy  for  a  few  cents  a  money  order  which  will  be  accepted 
by  any  firm.  The  money  order  is  but  a  kind  of  check,  the 
post-office  acting  as  bank. 

Another  form-letter,  commonly  employed  in  business 
transactions,  is  the  receipt.  Here  is  a  representation  of 
one. 


J\ I He,UA»t.    -y-   -  Too 


AoAA 


UA.ei/\^K£JL      QTvc  Vtovc&tktyfccL      jhuA/vuJlLW  i 


19.^ 


OK|AiJ.  K-  st.^^.  gy^ 


This  is  a  form  with  which  you  should  be  familiar;  for  you 
might  have  occasion  to  give  a  receipt  at  a  time  when  printed 
forms  were  not  to  be  had.  The  same  care  should  be  used  in 
writing  names  and  in  filling  completely  the  line  on  which 
the  sum  is  written  as  is  necessary  in  making  out  checks. 


186  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

EXERCISE  4 

Write  three  checks  payable  to  different  individuals  or  firms, 
using  as  signature  the  name  John  Doe. 

In  the  same  way  write  three  receipts,  UMng  the  signature 
John  Doe.  Cut  out,  for  this  purpose,  slips  of  paper  about 
three  inches  by  six. 

Not  uncommonly  the  first  business  letter  a  young  person 
writes  is  a  request  for  a  catalogue  or  a  free  booklet.  Cata- 
logues, booklets,  samples,  etc.,  are  a  form  of  advertising, 
and  the  purpose  of  advertising  is  to  make  sales.  It  is  hardly 
fair  to  send  for  such  things  unless  there  is  a  likelihood  that 
sometime  you  will  become  a  purchaser.  If  you  do  send, 
make  it  an  opportunity  for  practice  in  business  correspond- 
ence.    Here  is  a  letter  to  study. 

16  Collins  St. 
Hatfield,  Mass. 
January  3.  1920 

Armour  &  Co . 

Domestic  Service  Div.  97 

Chicago,  111. 

Gentlemen: 

Kindly  send  me  your  booklet  entitled 

The  Business  of  Being  a  Housewife 
mentioned  in  your  advertisement  in  the  January 
number  of  Good  Housekeeping. 

Yours  very  truly, 

(Miss)  Ellen  F.  Brewster 

The  Heading  and  Inside  Address,  you  will  note,  are  not 
arranged  in  oblique  alignment,  but  in  "block"  fashion. 
This  form  is  commonly  followed,  of  late,  in  business  cor- 
respondence, especially  where  the  typewriter  is  used.  It 
saves  a  little  time,  and  in  large  offices  where  scores  of  clerks 
are  employed,  the  saving  of  time,  and  therefore  of  money, 
is  considerable.  Here  is  the  way  an  envelope  looks  when 
the  block  form  is  followed: 


BUSINESS  ENGLISH  187 


Ellen  F.  Brewster 
16  Collins  St. 
Hatfield,  Mass. 


Armour  &  Company 
Domestic  Service  Div.  97 
Chicago 
Illinois 


Why  is  it  a  good  plan  to  put  the  title  of  the  booklet  on  a 
separate  line?  Why  mention  Good  Housekeeping?  Why  is 
the  one  word  kindly  a  sufficient  amount  of  politeness  for  a 
note  asking  a  favor?  Which  style  do  you  prefer,  the  oblique 
or  the  block?  Have  you  ever  seen  a  social  letter  in  which 
the  block  style  was  followed? 

Here  is  a  business  letter  containing  an  order  for  goods. 

76  Mohican  Ave. 
Rochester,  N.Y. 
Dec.  7,  1919 
Scout  Service  Bureau 
22  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York 
Gentlemen: 

Please  send  by  American  Express  the  following: 
1  No.  0100  Scout  Hike  Tent  3.50 

1  "   1061  Standard  Sewing  Kit  .65 

1  "   1191  Pocket  Signal  Disk  .15 

2  "   1212  Boy  Scout  Field  Glass  at  5.00    10.00 
2  "   1201  Aluminum  Canteen  at  1.00         2.00 

•  16.30 
You  will  find  enclosed  a  money  order  for  S16,30, 
the  correct  amount  according  to  your  catalogue. 
Yours  truly, 

Everett  T.  Lake 


188  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

Notice  that  the  correct  Salutation  in  a  letter  to  a  firm  is 
Gentlemen.  If  the  partners  of  a  firm  are  women,  Mesdames  is 
used.  When  the  "  block  "  form  is  followed  in  a  type\^  ritten 
business  letter,  the  paragraphs,  sometimes  with  and  some- 
times without  the  indentions  found  in  all  social  letters,  are 
separated  one  from  another  by  means  of  double  spacing. 
Frequently  one  sees,  below  and  to  the  left  of  the  writer's 
signature,  1  enclosure,  or  2  enc.y  calling  attention  to  checks 
or  other  enclosures.  Is  this  a  good  plan?  How  would  it 
do  to  fasten  the  money  order  to  the  letter  by  means  of  a 
clip?  Why  did  not  Mr.  Lake  send  a  check  instead  of  a 
money  order? 

EXERCISE  5 
Perform  one  of  the  following  tasks,  hut  do  not  mail  any  letter, 

1.  The  Bookshop  for  Boys  and  Girls,  264  Boylston  St., 
Boston,  Mass.,  managed  by  women,  publishes  two  valuable 
catalogues:  Books  for  Boys  and  Girls,  price  25  cents;  Out-of- 
Door  Books,  price  50  cents.  Write  such  a  letter  as  would  be 
appropriate  if  you  were  sending  for  these  two  catalogues. 

2.  The  Brown  &  Sharpe  Mfg.  Co.  of  Providence,  R.  I., 
give,  in  their  Catalogue  27,  descriptions  of  over  a  thousand 
varieties  of  tools,  besides  instructive  matter  valuable  to  every 
mechanic.  Write,  but  do  not  mail,  a  letter  asking  for  this 
catalogue. 

3.  Roe,  Searsbuck  &  Co.,  let  us  imagine,  is  a  large  mail  order 
house  in  New  York.  It  sells  nearly  everything.  Order  a  bill 
of  goods,  at  least  five  items,  making  up  prices  and  catalogue 
numbers.  Specify  whether  goods  are  to  be  shipped  by  parcel 
post,  express,  or  freight. 

4.  A.  G.  Spalding  &  Co.  of  New  York  carry  a  full  line  of 
athletic  goods.  Order  a  camping  outfit,  inventing  prices  and 
catalogue  numbers. 

5.  Imagining  that  you  are  one  of  the  above  firms,  make  out 
a  bill  for  the  goods  ordered.  Try  to  invent  an  attractive  bill- 
head. 


BUSINESS  ENGLISH  189 


BOY,  industrious,  steady,  reliable,  in  the  commercial 
oflBce  of  a  Hartford  factory.  Would  have  to  begin  by 
learning  the  details  of  oflBce  work.  Advancement  sure 
if  ability  is  shown.  Apply  by  letter,  giving  age,  edu- 
cation, experience,  references. 
Profitable,  Box  26,  Courant. 


56  Woodrow  St. 
Hartford,  Conn. 

June  18,  1919 
Profitable 

Box  26,  Courant 
Dear  Sir: 

I  am  interested  in  the  position  referred  to 
in  the  advertisement  attached  to  this  letter.     Here 
is  the  information  you  ask  for: 
Age:  seventeen. 

Education:  I  graduate  June  27  from  the  Com- 
mercial Department  of  Hartford  High  School. 

Business  experience:  I  have  had  no  oflSce  experi- 
ence. Last  summer  I  worked  for  Mr.  E.  K.  Rood, 
farmer,  Mountain  Road,  West  Hartford.  During 
the  past  year  I  have  been  business  manager  of  the 
High  School  Chronicle. 

References:  By  permission  I  refer  you  to  Mr. 
E.  K.  Rood,  Mountain  Road,  West  Hartford;  Mr. 
Clement  C.  Hyde,  Principal  of  Hartford  High  School; 
Mr.  George  B.  Kingsbury,  Commercial  Department, 
Hartford  High  School. 

I  shall   be  glad  to  call  at  your  office  any  schocl 
day  after  four  o'clock,  or  any  Saturday  morning. 
Yours  truly, 

Henry  F.  Collins 


190  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

The  letter  of  application  on  page  189  is  such  as  any  boy 
seeking  a  position  might  be  called  upon  to  write.  We  shall 
study  it  through  the  eyes  of  the  man  to  whom  it  is  addressed. 
He  has  received,  we  will  imagine,  ten  replies  to  the  advertise- 
ment inserted  in  a  morning  paper.  A  number  of  these  he 
has  thrown  into  the  waste-basket;  they  do  not  interest  him. 
Henry's  letter  he  reads  a  second  time,  and  this  is  the  way  he 
judges  it. 

**Good  stationery  —  his  father's,  I  suspect  —  white,  un- 
ruled, the  letter-sheet  matching  the  envelope.  Attaching 
the  ad.  to  the  first  page  is  a  capital  idea;  I  wonder  who 
taught  him  to  do  it.  Good  penmanship,  clear,  neat,  a  bit 
boyish,  but  better  than  mine.  So  far  as  I  can  see,  the  letter 
is  perfect  in  spelling,  punctuation,  grammar,  and  arrange- 
ment. I  suppose  letter  writing  is  taught  in  all  schools, 
nowadays,  but  not  every  boy  profits  by  the  instruction. 
I  think  this  youngster  must  be  teachable  —  a  mighty  strong 
point  in  his  favor. 

"The  letter  is  brief,  as  it  should  be.  There's  no  brag  in 
it.  I  like  that.  What  I  asked  for  is  given,  and  nothing 
more.  Let's  see  —  seventeen;  high  school  boy;  commercial 
course.  A  summer  on  a  farm  is  a  pretty  good  preliminary 
to  a  business  career.  He  must  be  fairly  husky,  or  no  farmer 
would  have  taken  him.  Manager  of  a  school  publication? 
H'm.  I  wonder  if  he  made  a  dollar.  That's  quite  a  respon- 
sibihty,  for  a  boy.  The  fellows  must  have  confidence  in 
him  or  they  wouldn't  have  given  him  the  job.  Boys  are 
pretty  shrewd  in  such  matters,  as  a  rule.  Collins  —  a 
good  name.  I  wonder  if  his  father  isn't  head  bookkeeper 
at  the  Boston  Branch.     I  believe  I'll  look  the  lad  up." 

He  presses  a  button  and  his  secretary  enters.  He  hands 
her  the  letter.  "See  if  Mr.  Rood's  name  is  in  the  telephone 
directory.  Call  up  the  High  School  first  and  see  if  you  can 
get  Principal  Hyde.  You  don't  hap])en  to  know  the  Col- 
linses, do  you?     Unless  I  countermand  the  order  before  noon, 


BUSINESS  ENGLISH  191 

write  to  this  boy  and  ask  him  to  call  Saturday  at  ten  sharp." 
A  minute  later,  the  manufacturer  is  again  busy  with  his 
morning  mail,  this  time  reading  a  letter  from  the  manager 
of  a  branch  house  in  a  distant  city. 

And  now,  putting  out  of  mind  all  that  the  manufacturer 
has  said  to  himself  while  studying  Henry's  letter,  what  do 
you  think  of  it.^  Is  it  a  good  letter?  Is  it  the  kind  you 
would  have  written  had  you  been  in  Henry's  place?  How 
about  the  five  or  six  other  letters  of  application  received 
by  the  manufacturer?  Imagine  yourself  glancing  through 
them.  What  are  some  of  the  things  you  find  to  account 
for  the  fact  that  they  found  their  way  to  the  office  waste- 
basket? 

EXERCISE  6 

Pick  out  one  of  the  following  advertisements  and  write  a  letter 
of  application.  Try  to  produce  the  hind  of  letter  that  will  appeal 
to  a  business  man  anxious  to  get  at  the  more  important  part  of 
his  morning^ s  mail.  Use  your  imagination  in  picturing  him  as 
he  sits  in  his  office.  Do  not  imitate  too  closely  the  letter  studied 
or  any  other  letter  you  may  have  seen.  Be  natural^  even  though 
you  turn  out  a  letter  that  is  unique.  Being  unique  is  better  than 
being  a  *^ copy-cat.** 

WANTED 
Boy  about  16  years  of  age  to  take  care  of  the  mails,  etc.,  in  our 
office.     Good  pay  to  start  and  fine  chance  for  advancement  to  the 

right  boy.     THE  CORLISS  PAPER  COMPANY. 

WANTED  —  YOUNG  MAN  TO  DRIVE  CAR  TO  NEW  HAVEN 
twice    weekly,    and    be  generally  useful  about  house.     Address 

Dr.  A.  C.  Traub,  4g  Hill  st. 

WANTED -BOY    FOR    GENERAL    OFFICE     WORK,    Ex- 
perience   not    necessary;     permanent    position    and    good     op- 

portunities.     Address  Box  80,  Times. 

WANTED  — BOY      TX)     MAKE     HIMSELF     GENERALLY 
useful   in  our  editorial   room.      Apply   at    Business    office.  The 
Hartford  Times. 

WANTED  — BOY  TO  LEARN  OPTICAL  BUSINESS,  GOOD 
chance  for  advancement.      Wiley  Optical  Co.,  Room  507,  Rice 

Bldg. 

WANTED  — BOY   16  YEARS  OLD  TO  WORK   IN  STORE; 
permanent  position  for  right  boy.    Address  Landers,  Clark  &  Co., 

66  Main  street. 

WANTED  — YOUNG     MAN     FOR     DELIVERY     WAGON, 
one  who  can  drive   car   preferred;     references    required.     M.  J. 
Bingham,  Meriden. 


19«  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

WANTED  —  ERRAND  BOY.    GOOD  CHANCE  FOR  BRIGHT 

boy   to  learn  mechanical  dentistry.     Apply  by  letter  to  Dental 

Laboratory.  924  Main  st. 

WANTED  —  OFFICE    BOY,    ABOUT    17    YEARS    OLD.    A 

graduate  from  grammar  school,  to  work  in  office,  drafting  room, 
attend  to  mail,  etc.;  unusual  opportunity  for  advancement:  give 
age,  experience,  nationality,  references,  and  salary  expected.     P.  O. 

648.  city. 

"^  WANTED 

Smart  girl,  higli  school  graduate,   for  office  and  telephone  work; 
must    have    some    knowledge    of    bookkeeping    and    stenography. 

Apply  Franklin  Printing  Co.,  81  Pine  st. 

OFFICE   GIRL 
for  general  office  work;    store  hours;    must  be  quick  and  accurate 
at  figures  and   write  a   good  plain   hand;  typewriting  experience 
an  advantage;   reference  required;    state  salary  expected  in  answer- 

ing.     Address  Office,  Box  60,  Times. 

WANTED  —  GIRL  FOR  TABULATING  WORK.  INEXPERl- 

enced  preferred.     Address  Girl.  Box  1.  Times. 

ATTENTION:     A    GROWING    COMPANY  WANTS  AN  IN- 

tclligent,  reliable  girl  as  assistant  to  multigraph  operator.  Ex- 
perience unnecessary,  pleasant  work,  sl;ort  hours,  1  i  hours  for 
lunch.     Must    be    ambitious    and    willing   to    learn.     Give    phone 

number.     P.  O.  Drawer  47,  city. 

WANTED  — YOUNG    LADY    AS    ASSISTANT   IN    OFFICE, 

one  who  understands  shorthand  and  typewriter.  State  age,  experi- 
ence, and  salary  expected;     give   references.     Retail  Store,  P.  O. 

Box   6311,  city. 

WANTED  —  YOUNG  GIRL  ABOUT  16  OR  17  FOR  CASHIER^ 

experienced  preferred;    good  opportunity  for  advancement.     Ad- 

dress  Opportunity,  Box  612.  Times. 

WANTED  —  BRIGHT  GIRL  ABOUT  16  YEARS,  AS  ASSIST- 

ant  in  advertising  dept.  of  manufacturing  concern.     Chance  to 

advance.     Address  Assistant,  P.  O.  Box  300,  Hartford. 

WANTED  — A    TYPIST.     APPLY    THE    POST    &    PETERS 

Co.,  11«  Bacon  st. 

EXERCISE  7 

The  instructor  will  write  on  the  blackboard  two  advertise- 
merits,  one  for  the  boys  and  one  for  the  girls  —  if  there  are 
girls  in  the  class.  All  the  members  of  the  class  save  three  will 
write  letters  of  application  in  competition.  The  three,  playing 
the  role  of  merchant  or  manvfacturer,  will  pick  the  successful 
candidates  and  explain  to  the  class  what  things  have  influenced 
them  in  their  decision. 

Reports  play  an  important  part  in  the  business  world, 
though  few  of  them  are  seen  by  many  eyes.  They  are  found 
in  the  letters  which  pass  between  the  traveling  salesman  and 
his  home  office;  in  carefully  guarded  books  recording  the 
proceedings  of  important  meetings  of  directors.  A  few,  in- 
tended for  stockholders  or  the  general  public,   appear  in 


BUSINESS  ENGLISH  19S 

print.  These,  not  uncommonly,  are  models  of  business 
English,  absolutely  correct  in  grammar,  spelling,  punctua- 
tion, etc.,  absolutely  clear  in  every  statement,  and  so  con- 
cise that  it  is  difficult  to  find  a  word  which  might  be  omitted. 
Whether  one  is  preparing  for  a  business  career  or  not, 
practice  in  writing  reports  is  of  unusual  value,  for  it  pro- 
vides training  in  clear,  accurate,  concise  expression.  For 
this  reason,  whoever  is  asked  to  serve  as  secretary  of  a  school 
club  is  fortunate.  Here  is  a  report  written  by  a  school 
girl.     It  is  not  perfect,  but  it  is  worth  studying. 

A  joint  meeting  of  the  Katherine  Burbank  Literary  Society 
and  the  Athena  Debating  Club  was  held  in  the  lecture  room 
December  8  at  2:30  p.m.  A  large  number  of  teachers  and 
members  were  present.  The  address  of  welcome,  written  in 
verse,  was  delivered  by  Miss  Keevers  of  the  Athena.  Miss 
Geer,  also  of  the  Athena,  then  read  an  interesting  biographical 
sketch  of  Robert  Louis  Stevenson,  and  some  of  Stevenson's 
poems  were  well  recited  by  Miss  Stelling  of  the  K.B.L.S. 
Miss  Marsh  of  the  Athena,  accompanied  by  Miss  Ruth  Welles 
of  the  K.B.L.S.,  rendered  Wieniawski's  Mazurka  on  the  violin. 

The  fourth  scene  of  Act  II  of  As  You  Like  It  was  then  given, 
with  Miss  Giddings  of  the  Athena  as  Touchstone,  Miss  Simp- 
son of  the  Athena  as  Rosalind,  Miss  Parker  of  the  K.B.L.S. 
as  Celia,  Miss  Stoddard  of  the  Athena  as  Silvius,  and  Miss 
Northway  of  the  K.B.L.S.  as  Corin.  The  first  scene  of  Act 
IV  was  also  given,  the  parts  of  Orlando,  Rosalind,  and  Celia 
being  taken  by  Miss  Margaret  Welles  of  the  Athena,  and  Miss 
Segur  and  Miss  Parker  of  the  K.B.L.S. 

A  sextette.  Miss  Browne,  Miss  Olmsted,  and  Miss  Wallace 
of  the  Athena,  and  Miss  Seymour,  Miss  Williams,  and  Miss 
Schumann  of  the  K.B.L.S.,  sang  Rubinstein's  Voices  of  the 
Woods.  The  accompaniment  was  played  by  Miss  Hill  of  the 
K.B.L.S. 

After  the  meeting,  refreshments  were  served  in  the  gym- 
nasium, and  a  social  time  was  enjoyed. 

Dorothy  Booth  Lewis 
Secretary 


194 


JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 


EXERCISE  8 

What  do  you  find  to  like  in  the  above  report?  Can  you  sug- 
gest ways  in  which  it  might  be  improved?  If  you  were  to  re- 
ceive two  letters  from  friends,  members  of  a  house  party  group, 
could  you  tell,  even  though  the  letters  were  typewritten  and  un- 
signed, who  had  written  each?  If  you  had  before  you  unsigned 
reports  of  a  club  meeting,  written  by  two  of  your  friends,  could 
you  tell  who  was  the  author  of  each?  How  does  a  report  differ 
from  a  social  letter?  Can  you  think  of  a  friend  whose  letters 
you  very  much  enjoy,  yet  who  would  make  a  poor  club  secre- 
tary? Can  you  think  of  one  who  might  prove  equally  good 
at  writing  letters  and  at  drafting  a  report?  Must  one,  in 
writing  a  report,  keep  himself  out  altogether,  or  is  this  unneces- 
sary? Is  it  possible?  How  does  the  following  newspaper 
report  differ  from  a  secretary's  report? 


With  hair  powdered  and  elaborate  Eighteenth  Cen- 
tury costumes  to  add  to  the  scene,  the  Katherine 
Burbank  Literary  Society  presented  its  annual  drama- 
tic entertainment  in  the  school  gymnasium  yesterday 
afternoon  before  an  audience  of  friends  and  members 
of  the  faculty.  The  address  of  welcome  was  made  by 
Miss  Marion  Herter.  Next  Miss  Charlotte  Opper  read 
a  paper  which  gave  a  brief  synopsis  of  the  plays  Fanny 
Burney  at  Court  and  Oliver  Goldsmith  and  Dr.  Samuel 
Johnson.  All  of  the  parts  were  portrayed  by  the  girls; 
especially  able  were  the  male  parts,  which,  consider- 
ing the  short  time  the  members  of  the  club  had  in 
which  to  prepare,  were  well  carried  out.  The  feature 
of  the  afternoon  came  when  about  sixteen  of  the 
senior  girls  in  the  club  danced  the  minuet.  This  was 
followed  by  a  solo.  The  Lass  of  the  Delicate  Air,  sung 
by  Miss  Marjorie  Day. 


EXERCISE    9 


Perform   one  of  the  follounng  tasks,  making  an  unusual 
effort  not  only  to  employ  good  English  but   to   be   accurate. 


BUSINESS  ENGLISH  195 

Remember  that  you  are  serving  merely  as  a  gatherer  of  infar- 
matioriy  not  as  a  critic. 

1.  Attend  a  class  meeting,  or  a  meeting  of  some  club  or 
society,  and  prepare  a  report  of  the  proceedings.  If  attending 
such  a  gathering  is  impossible,  you  may  substitute  a  report 
of  a  recitation  hour  or  a  church  service. 

2.  If  you  belong  to  the  Boy  Scouts  or  the  Campfire  Girls, 
prepare  a  report  giving  such  information  as  one  might  wish 
before  joining  the  organization.  To  make  the  report  thorough 
and  systematic,  first  prepare  a  list  of  topics  to  be  covered,  in 
proper  order. 

3.  Question  has  been  raised,  you  may  imagine,  whether  the 
school  building  is  properly  safeguarded  against  fire  —  whether 
fire  escapes  are  numerous  and  properly  placed,  and  whether 
fire  drills  are  frequent.  Prepare  a  report  giving  the  desired 
information. 

4.  You  are  interested  in  the  Safety  First  movement.  Let 
the  class  consider  itself  a  committee  that  has  been  given  a  week 
in  which  to  discover  ways  in  which  property  and  life  might 
be  safeguarded  in  the  homes  and  the  public  places  throughout 
the  town.  On  the  day  when  each  presents  an  oral  report, 
let  one  member  of  the  class  be  appointed  secretary  to  prepare 
a  general  written  report. 

5.  If  you  live  in  a  city  where  it  is  possible,  study  the  windows 
of  at  least  three  stores  carrying  the  same  line  of  merchandise 
and  prepare  a  report  on  the  way  they    are  trimmed. 

6.  The  Athletic  Association,  you  may  imagine,  wishes  to 
organize  a  football  team,  but  the  school  principal  is  afraid  it 
will  cost  too  much.  First  investigate  the  cost  of  equipment, 
then  prepare  a  detailed  estimate,  including  actual  figures, 
and  show  how  much  each  member  of  the  Association  would 
have  to  be  taxed. 

7.  It  is  claimed,  let  us  suppose,  that  the  small  home  garden 
does  not  pay.  If  you  have  managed  such  a  garden,  and  have 
kept  accurate  account  of  time  and  money  expenditure,  prepare 
a  report. 

8.  Information  is  desired  in  regard  to  the  ways  boys  and  girls 


196  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

have  of  earning  money.  Investigate  five  cases,  if  you  can  do 
so  without  offense,  and  prepare  a  report  of  what  you  discover. 
9.  It  has  been  claimed,  let  it  be  imagined,  that  the  notices 
placed  upon  the  blackboards  or  school  bulletins  are  not  care- 
fully prepared  and  therefore  give  visitors  a  false  impression 
of  the  school.  Make  a  thorough  investigation  and  prepare 
a  detailed  report. 

EXERCISE  10 

In  case  you  have  recently  witnessed  a  street  car  accidenty 
give  the  information  called  for  in  the  following  form-blank.  To 
save  time,  you  may  simply  refer  to  the  items  by  number. 


Did  you  see  the  accident?  

Where  did  it  occur?   

What  day  and  at  what  hour  did  this  accident  occur? 
Where  were  you  when  it  occurred?    


Was  car  standing  or  moving?     If  moving,  about  how  fast? 

In  your  opinion,  who  was  to  blame?    Why?    

What  warning  was  given  before  accident?  

Give  full  account  of  accident  as  witnessed  by  you 


Please  give  name  (and  address  if  possible)  of  any  one  else  who  witnessed 
the  accident 


^Vhat  is  your  full  name  and  address? 
Dated, 


BUSINESS  ENGLISH  197 

EXERCISE  11 

Before  settling  a  damage  claim,  the  insurance  oflScial 
calls  for  a  detailed  statement  of  how  the  accident  occurred, 
and  precisely  what  damage  was  done.  He  must  have  the 
facts,  all  of  them,  so  plainly  stated  that  he  can,  through  im- 
agination, see  everything  as  clearly  as  if  he  had  been  an  eye 
witness.  Here  is  a  report  prepared  for  an  insurance 
company : 

It  occurred  Saturday,  August  seventeenth,  at  five  p.m.,  about 
a  mile  north  of  Seymour,  on  the  river  road  leading  to  Naugatuck. 
At  that  point  the  highway  is  somewhat  narrow.  A  guard-rail 
bounds  it  on  the  west,  beyond  which  a  bank  slopes  steeply  to  the 
river;  on  the  east  side  is  a  gravel  slope  slanting  upward  at  an 
angle  of  about  fifty  degrees. 

I  was  driving  my  Buick  touring  car  north  at  a  rate  of  approxi- 
mately twenty  miles  an  hour.  Approaching  me  was  a  Hudson 
touring  car  going  at  about  the  same  rate.  When  we  were  about 
sixty  feet  apart,  the  front  axle  of  the  Hudson  broke  at  the  hub 
on  the  side  nearest  me,  and  the  released  wheel  came  bowling  straight 
at  me.  The  rest  of  the  car,  with  the  broken  axle  scraping  on  the 
ground,  continued  about  forty  feet,  taking  a  course  that  would 
have  brought  it  directly  into  my  path. 

To  avoid  the  crash,  I  ran  my  car  as  far  up  the  bank  as  I  dared. 
Had  I  gone  farther,  I  should  have  hit  a  boulder.  The  Hudson 
cleared  me  by  a  few  inches ;  but  the  released  wheel  struck  my  left 
front  mud-guard  and  threw  the  right  front  wheel  against  the 
boulder. 

No  one  in  either  car  was  hurt.  The  Hudson  was  not,  I 
think,  damaged,  aside  from  the  broken  axle,  except  for  a  leak 
in  the  radiator.  My  car  was  damaged  as  follows:  The  left 
front  mud-guard  was  ruined  beyond  repair.  The  front  axle 
was  twisted  about  four  inches  out  of  line.  A  spring-bolt  was 
broken  and  the  leaves  of  the  right  forward  spring  thrown 
out  of  alignment.  The  glove  to  the  steering-knuckle  was 
ruined.  Three  spokes  were  broken  from  the  right  front  wheel, 
the   remaining   spokes   loosened,   and   the   thread   of   the   hub 


198  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

cap  broken.     The  right  front  tire  was  badly  cut,  two  patches 
of  rubber  being  torn  from  the  canvas  fabric. 

Men  from  the  Valley  Garage  in  Seymour  patched  up  the  wheel 
so  that,  three  hours  later,  I  was  able  to  crawl  home  at  a  rate 
that  brought  me  to  Hartford  about  midnight. 

Write  a  report  about  two-thirds  as  long  as  the  abovey  cover- 
ing in  detail  an  incident  in  which  you  figured.  The  follovnng 
may  suggest  an  appropriate  title: 

1.  The  accident.  2.  A  schoolyard  mix-up.  3.  Why  I  was 
late.  4.  A  confession.  5.  How  we  "fell  out"  and  then  "made 
up.'*  6.  My  version  of  it.  7.  How  the  game  was  lost  in  the 
inning.     8.   The  fire. 


EXERCISE   12 

Here  is  a  report  in  which  a  schoolboy  has  "charted"  a 
seashore  settlement.  It  is  little  more  than  a  map,  yet  with 
here  and  there  a  descriptive  touch  which  helps  the  reader  to 
picture  things.     Is  it  well  done.'^ 

Walker  Beach 

From  the  main  road  between  Waybrook  and  Eastbrook  a 
small  lane  runs  through  the  strawberry  beds,  cornfields,  and 
marshes  to  the  beach.  When  you  have  followed  the  lane  for 
perhaps  two-thirds  of  its  length,  a  sharp  turn  around  a  clump 
of  trees  brings  the  beach  into  view.  Beyond  a  stretch  of  about 
a  hundred  yards  of  sea  marsh  are  five  cottages  facing  the 
shore,  one  small,  one  slightly  in  the  rear  and  to  the  right,  and 
three  larger  ones  in  a  row  and  about  five  yards  apart.  The 
lane  continues  on  to  the  cottages  after  crossing  a  small  creek, 
and  then  branches,  one  part  going  along  beyond  the  houses 
and  coming  out  of  the  grass  onto  the  beach  away  off  to  the 
left,  the  other  reaching  straight  to  the  shore  to  the  right  of  the 
cottages.  In  front  the  beach  is  about  twenty  feet  wide  at  high 
tide,   while  at    low    tide    wide    stretches    of    moist  sand  are 


BUSINESS  ENGLISH  199 

uncovered.    In  back  of  this  is  a  bank  four  or  five  feet  high  with 
half  a  dozen  stairs  in  front  of  the  three  large  cottages. 

To  the  east  the  line  of  sand  is  broken  by  a  creek  which  runs 
around  behind  the  cottages,  crosses  the  lane  under  a  low  stone 
bridge,  and  disappears  off  to  the  west,  acting  as  a  boundary 
between  Edstbrook  and  Waybrook.  The  broad  expanse  of  the 
Sound  with  the  dim  blue  hills  of  Long  Island  in  the  distance 
completes  the  view. 

Write  a  similar  report  mapping  a  village,  a  park,  a  farm,  a 
section  of  a  city,  a  summer  camp,  or  a  manufacturing  plant 
which  covers  considerable  ground.  Imagine  that  you  are  pre- 
paring it  for  some  person  whom,  you  know,  and  for  a  par^ 
Ocular  purpose. 

If  compositions  were  paid  for,  the  prices  ranging  from  one 
hundred  dollars  down  to  a  penny;  or  if  a  charge  were  made 
for  every  error,  the  penalties  ranging  from  a  penny  to  a 
hundred  dollars,  what  a  change  there  would  be  in  school 
compositions!  The  boy  who  thinks  that  because  he  is  going 
into  business  it  is  a  waste  of  time  to  study  English  will  do 
well  to  remember  that  in  the  business  world  there  is  not  a 
little  of  composition  writing,  and  that  every  word  of  every 
composition  is  on  a  money  basis.  Skill  is  rewarded,  some- 
times to  a  degree  almost  fabulous,  and  errors  are  not  in- 
frequently disastrous. 

Five  thousand  dollars  is  the  regular  price  per  page  for  a 
single  issue  in  a  certain  weekly  publication.  Naturally  an 
advertiser  uses  extreme  care  in  determining  how  he  will 
fill  such  a  page.  He  would  exercise  extreme  care  even  if 
the  page  were  free;  for  he  knows  that  what  it  contains  may 
bring  him  wealth,  or  it  may  leave  him  a  step  nearer  bank- 
ruptcy. An  issue  of  a  trade  catalogue,  if  elaborately  printed, 
may  cost  a  manufacturer  twenty  thousand  dollars;  but  even 
if  paper  and  ink  were  free,  it  would  still  be  possible  to  find 
catalogues  written  in  far  better  style  than  that  which  is 
found  in  the  average  popular  novel.     Manufacturers  have 


200  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

learned  that  they  cannot  afford  to  print  anything  but  the 
best  of  Enghsh. 

Not  a  Httle  may  be  learned  about  the  art  of  advertising 
merely  through  studying  the  circulars  and  trade  letters 
which  the  mail  man  brings,  the  catalogues  of  prominent 
firms,  and  the  advertising  sections  of  the  better  newspapers 
and  magazines.  Studying  the  art  of  advertising  is  exceed- 
ingly valuable,  for  it  shows  in  a  practical  way  how  care- 
fully English  is  employed  when  every  error  may  become  a 
very  expensive  matter. 

EXERCISE  13 

Let  committees  of  two  or  three  selected  from  the  members  of 
the  class  be  assigned  tasks  from  the  list  below,  the  results  of 
their  investigations  to  be  presented  in  oral  reports. 

1.  To  test  the  claim  that  advertisers  as  a  rule  use  correct 
English,  read  carefully  the  advertising  in  a  good  newspaper 
and  make  a  record  of  all  errors  in  grammar  and  punctuation, 
all  misspelled  words,  and  all  sentences  which  might  be  improved. 

2.  Make  a  similar  inspection  of  the  advertising  in  a  good 
magazine. 

3.  Make  a  study  of  street  car  advertising,  not  only  looking 
for  errors  but  trying  to  decide  what  two  or  three  advertisements 
are  best  designed  to  attract  attention  and  lead  to  sales,  and  what 
two  or  three  are  not  a  success.  The  report  should  describe  the 
advertisements  referred  to,  and  reasons  for  approving  or  dis- 
approving should  be  given. 

4.  Make  a  study  of  bill-board  advertising,  not  only  looking 
for  errors  but  trying  to  find  and  describe  one  or  two  exception- 
ally good  displays. 

5.  If  you  live  in  a  city,  go  scouting  through  a  business  section 
and  make  a  study  of  placards,  both  printed  and  written,  dis- 
played in  windows. 

6.  Cut  from  magazines,  or  get  from  dealers,  four  or  five 
advertisements  of  as  many  different  kinds  of  goods  in  a  certain 
line  —  automobiles,  for  instance,  or  breakfast  foods  —  and 
try  to  pick  out  the  best.     Give  reasons  for  your  choice. 


BUSINESS  ENGLISH  201 

7.  Try  to  find,  wherever  you  can,  one  each  of  the  following: 
(a)  an  advertisement  which  gives  no  description  of  goods  for 
sale,  its  purpose  apparently  being  simply  to  keep  before  the 
public  the  name  of  a  certain  article;  so  that  when  a  clerk  asks, 
'*What  kind?"  the  name  of  the  particular  kind  advertised 
will  pop  into  the  customer's  head;  (6)  an  advertisement  which 
tries  to  argue  you  into  buying  a  certain  article  —  because  it  is 
cheapest,  perhaps,  or  because  you  really  need  it;  (c)  an  adver- 
tisement written  in  such  a  way  as  to  appeal  merely  to  a  certain 
class,  as  music  lovers,  or  mechanics;  (d)  an  advertisement 
which,  in  your  opinion,  takes  advantage  of  the  ignorance  of 
uneducated  people. 

EXERCISE  14 

In  certain  school  papers  a  page  is  devoted  to  advertisements 
furnished  by  the  members  of  the  school.  Bicycles,  printing 
outfits,  stamp  collections,  and  musical  instruments  are  among 
the  things  offered  for  sale. 

Write  an  advertisement  for  such  a  page,  offering  some  article 
that  you  actually  possess. 

EXERCISE  16 

Let  all  the  members  of  the  class  compete  in  writing  a  sales 
letter  —  that  is,  a  letter  designed  to  make  sales  —  the  article  to 
be  marketed  having  been  previously  agreed  upon.  A  committee 
of  three  should  be  appointed  by  the  class  to  pick  the  winning 
letter. 

EXERCISE  16 

Prepare  to  discuss  in  class  all  of  the  following  assertions^ 
giving  your  opinions  without  reserve. 

1.  Few  well-known  firms  dare  to  use  shabby  English.  2.  Few 
reliable  firms  resort  to  clever  tricks;  plain,  clear,  straight- 
forward English,  so  simple  that  it  can  be  understood  by  every- 
body, is  the  rule.  3.  Imagination  is  a  most  important  thing 
for  the  advertiser  to  possess.     4.   The  advertising  expert  was 


202  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

right  who   declared    that  studying    English    masterpieces  was 
necessary  before  one  could  become  a  really  good  advertiser. 

Going  into  business  means,  in  many  cases,  becoming  a 
sales  clerk.  Has  good  English  anything  to  do  with  sales- 
manship? Let  us  see.  If  you  were  a  merchant  and  had 
ordered  a  number  of  printed  signs  for  your  windows,  would 
you  accept  them  if  you  found  that  words  had  been  mis- 
spelled, or  grammatical  errors  made,  or  the  letter  N  turned 
upside  down,  or  capital  I  printed  with  a  dot  above  it?  Why? 
If  you  would  not  accept  such  placards,  would  you  willingly 
place  behind  the  counter  a  clerk  likely  to  say  to  a  customer, 
"Ain't  them  nice?"  and  employ  similar  expressions?  Why? 
Is  it  for  the  same  reason  that  you  would  not  willingly  em- 
ploy a  clerk  or  an  oflSce  boy  who  had  not  sufficient  self- 
respect  to  keep  his  linen  fresh  and  his  hands  clean? 

But  you  may  say,  **It  takes  more  than  a  knowledge  of 
grammar  to  make  a  good  clerk."  Undoubtedly,  just  as  it 
takes  more  than  ability  to  write  correct  English  to  make  a 
novelist.  Back  of  words,  shining  through  them,  is  spirit, 
whether  the  words  are  printed  in  a  book  or  come  from  the 
lij)s  of  a  clerk.  The  spirit  of  courtesy  may  make  even  the 
ungrammatical  sentence  attractive;  the  lack  of  it,  even 
though  the  English  may  be  polished,  is  a  serious  matter. 
Have  you  ever  traded  where  the  clerk  showed  you  goods  as 
if  it  were  a  disagreeable  task,  replied  to  your  questions 
mechanically  without  ever  looking  you  in  the  eye,  showed 
irritation  because  you  could  not  make  up  your  mind  quickly, 
scolded  the  bundle  boy,  carried  on  a  running  conversation 
about  the  "movies"  with  a  neighboring  clerk,  and  jjerhaps 
chewed  gum  too?  A  customer  is  a  guest.  Courtesy  is  due 
the  guest.  It  includes  forgetting  personal  inconvenience, 
being  a  little  blind  to  the  faults  of  others,  being  attentive 
to  the  needs  of  others.  It  underlies  all  salesmanship.  It 
may  be  shown  in  many  little  ways,  principally,  perhaps. 


BUSINESS  ENGLISH  203 

through  words  and  the  tone  of  voice  with  which  they  are 
spoken. 

Does  imagination  play  a  part  in  successful  salesmanship? 
Undoubtedly,  particularly  that  kind  which  is  shown  in  a 
knowledge  of  human  nature.  Ability  to  read  minds  quickly 
and  accurately  is  of  the  utmost  value  to  one  who  in  a  single 
day  may  serve  several  hundred  customers  no  two  alike,  no 
two  calling  for  precisely  the  same  treatment.  But  how 
often  has  it  been  emphasized,  in  this  manual,  that  imagina- 
tion, particularly  the  ability  to  put  oneself  in  another's 
place,  is  of  value  in  all  forms  of  composition,  whether  it  be 
an  essay  or  merely  a  conversation  between  a  clerk  and  a 
customer.  Accuracy,  courtesy,  and  imagination  are  desir- 
able qualities  in  English,  no  matter  for  what  purpose  used. 


EXERCISE   17 

Consider  carefully  the  folloiving  questions.  Come  to  class 
prepared  to  give  freely  your  views  concerning  the  value  of  English 
to  one  who  is  to  serve  as  clerk  in  a  store  or  in  an  office. 

1.  A  certain  travehng  salesman  maintains  that  he  does  not 
dare  to  use  really  good  English  for  fear  the  men  whom  he  calls 
on,  few  of  whom  are  well  educated,  will  think  him  "stuck  up." 
Is  he  right  about  it.? 

2.  Can  you  guess  why  certain  prominent  New  York  mer- 
chants who  formerly  employed  grammar  school  graduates  now 
rarely  accept  young  applicants  who  cannot  show  a  high  school 
diploma? 

3.  Does  it  pay  to  flatter  a  customer? 

4.  Can  you  think  why,  in  many  stores,  clerks  are  warned 
that  they  must  be  as  attentive  to  one  whose  purchases  amount 
to  a  dime  as  to  one  who  buys  ten  dollars'  worth,  and  that  they 
must  be  particularly  attentive  to  children? 

5.  If  you  have  spent  a  day,  or  longer,  behind  a  counter,  can 
you  not  tell  of  some  little  experience  bearing  out  the  statement 


204  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

that  courteous  English  increases  sales?  that  the  better  clerks  study 
their  customers  carefully? 

6.  If  you  were  engaging  a  clerk,  would  you  prefer  one  who 
had  studied  only  such  branches  as  bookkeeping,  typewriting, 
and  stenography,  or  one  who  had  combined  these  studies  with 
other  branches? 

7.  Many  large  concerns  now  conduct  classes  in  salesmanship, 
which  the  younger  clerks  are  obliged  to  attend.  If  you  were 
conducting  such  classes,  what  are  some  of  the  things  you  would 
emphasize? 

EXERCISE  18 

Perform  one  of  the  following  tasks: 

1.  Write  a  dialogue  between  a  clerk  and  a  customer,  showing 
how  a  sale  was  made  under  trying  circumstances. 

2.  Write  a  composition  in  which  you  tell  about  a  clerk  of 
your  acquaintance  who  is,  you  think,  exceptionally  able. 

An  amazing  amount  of  business  is  done  by  telephone. 
The  housewife  orders  her  groceries  without  leaving  the 
house.  The  salesman  makes  appointments  with  prospective 
customers.  The  manufacturer  whose  power  plant  breaks 
down  at  ten  in  the  morning  immediately  calls  up  two  or  three 
concerns  to  get  prices  on  a  big  belt  to  take  the  place  of  one 
that  has  given  out,  places  his  order,  and  goes  to  lunch  re- 
lieved by  the  thought  that  a  belt  will  be  shipped  by  the  two 
o'clock  express.  The  wires  which  form  a  network  in  every 
town,  and  link  city  with  city  the  country  over,  are  burdened 
from  morning  till  night  with  —  business  English. 

EXERCISE  19 

Answer  the  following  questions: 

1.  If  you  were  a  merchant,  engaging  a  clerk  for  telephone  ser- 
vice, what  kind  of  person  would  you  select? 

2.  Are  voice  qualities  to  be  considered? 

3.  Does  disposition  matter? 


BUSINESS  ENGLISH  205 

4.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  expression  "knowledge  of  human 
uature"? 

5.  Is  such  knowledge  of  any  importance? 

6.  Is  good  breeding  of  any  importance? 

7.  The  sales  manager  of  a  certain  concern  makes  it  a  rule, 
whenever  he  wishes  to  talk  with  a  manufacturer,  to  "get"  the 
factory  office  first,  give  his  name,  tell  whom  he  wishes  to  speak 
with,  and  politely  request  that  the  gentleman  call  him  up  when 
he  is  at  liberty.  This  means  paying  toll  twice;  why  does  he  not 
ask  at  once  for  the  gentleman? 

8.  Can  you  imagine  a  telephone  conversation  in  which  inability 
to  think  quickly,  speak  distinctly,  and  say  precisely  what  you 
mean  in  condensed  form  might  result  in  a  great  financial    loss? 

9.  Can  you  imagine  a  case  wherein  ability  to  use  grammatically 
correct  English,  sentences  phrased  as  educated  gentlemen  phrase 
them,  might  mean  loss  of  business? 

EXERCISE  20 

Come  to  class  prepared  to  discuss  the  topic  Telephone  Eng- 
lish. Try  to  bring  out  as  forcefully  as  you  can  the  good  qual- 
ities and  also  the  less  desirable  ones.  Rely  in  part  on  your 
own  experience  and  on  what  common  sense  tells,  yet  get  ideas 
from,  other  sources  too,  if  you  can. 

Let  one  member  be  appointed  to  take  notes  and  later  prepare 
a  brief  composition,  based  upon  the  discussion,  entitled  Tele- 
phone English. 

EXERCISE  21 

Perform  one  or  more  of  the  following  tasks,  as  the  instructor 
may  indicate.  Keep  constantly  in  mind  the  person  who,  you 
imagine,  is  to  receive  what  you  write  —  your  employer,  your 
customer,  or  whoever  it  may  be.  Let  your  English  be  as  per- 
fect as  you  would  strive  to  have  it  if  you  were  writing  a  social 
letter  to  a  well-educated  gentleman  or  lady. 

1.  Prepare  a  list  of  the  teachers  in  your  school,  together 
with  their  home  addresses  and  their  telephone  numbers.     In- 


206  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

vent  an  arrangement  that  would  enable  a  clerk  to  see  at  a 
glance  just  how  to  direct  letters  to  them  or  reach  them  by 
telephone. 

2.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  textbooks  in  your  desk,  together 
with  the  names  of  authors  and  publishers.  Embody  this  list 
in  a  letter  to  a  person  who,  you  may  imagine,  has  asked  for  the 
information  furnished  by  the  lists.  Pay  particular  attention 
to  the  arrangement  of  items. 

3.  You  have  purchased  through  a  mail-order  house  an  in- 
voice of  goods.  Upon  receipt  of  the  package  you  find  one 
article  in  a  damaged  condition,  while  another  is  missing  al- 
together. Write  a  letter  to  the  firm.  First,  however,  stop 
to  consider  how  you  can  best  accomplish  the  result  you  desire. 

4.  Write  a  reply  to  the  above  letter.  Keep  two  things  in 
mind:  (a)  you  do  not  wish  to  lose  a  good  customer;  (6)  you 
do  not  wish  to  lose  money  unnecessarily. 

5.  You  are  a  grocer.  In  looking  over  your  books  at  the 
close  of  the  year  you  find  that  twenty  of  your  customers  are 
no  longer  giving  you  their  trade.  Prepare  a  letter,  to  be  type- 
written and  sent  to  each  of  the  twenty.  Remember  that  your 
one  purpose  is  to  win  back  custom  if  possible. 

6.  You  have  just  gone  into  business  for  yourself  after  being 
with  a  certain  firm  for  ten  years.  Let  the  line  of  goods  be  what 
you  please.  Prepare  a  letter  to  be  printed  and  sent  to  500 
people  whose  trade  you  would  like  to  secure. 

7.  You  are  planning  a  camping  trip.  Write  at  least  four 
business  letters  made  necessary  by  the  trip. 

EXERCISE  22 

Write  two  letters  from  the  instructor's  dictation.  You  mil 
be  told  in  advance  what  the  letter  is  ahouty  hut  you  must,  on 
the  spur  of  the  moment,  determine  all  matters  of  form. 

EXERCISE  23 

The  instructor,  playing  the  part  of  business  manager,  will 
give  orally  to  you,  who  are  to  play  the  role  of  secretary,  notes 


BUSINESS  ENGLISH  207 

for  a  business  letter.  With  the  notes  before  you,  write  the  letter. 
Later  the  instructor  will  read  to  the  class,  and  also  post  on  the 
bulletin  board,  the  letter  which  he  selects  as  best. 

The  exercises  in  this  group  and  the  words  of  explanation 
and  advice  accompanying  them  fail  in  their  chief  purpose  if 
they  do  not  leave  the  impression  that  business  English  is 
simply  good  English  —  clear,  accurate,  polite,  conveying 
messages  in  a  straightforward  way.  There  are  a  few  set 
forms  to  be  learned,  a  few  terms  and  phrases;  but  for  the 
most  part  the  English  employed  is  identical  with  that  em- 
ployed outside  the  business  world.  Good  breeding  counts. 
All  training  in  careful  expression  counts.  The  study  of 
literature  counts.  Nothing  takes  the  place  of  actual  ex- 
perience; on  the  other  hand,  no  part  of  the  training  received 
in  school  represents  time  lost. 


DRILL  EXERCISES 


PRONUNCIATION 


Probably  you  will  find,  at  the  bottom  of  each  page  of  the 
dictionary  that  you  use,  a  brief  explanation  of  the  symbols 
employed  in  indicating  correct  pronunciation.  In  some 
dictionaries  each  word  is  followed  by  a  phonetic  spelling. 
If  you  do  not  know  the  meaning  of  phonetic,  look  it  up. 

Here  are  common  words  that  are  often  mispronounced.  Turn 
to  your  dictionary  and  test  yourself.  Are  you  pronouncing  all 
of  them  as  you  should? 


route 

deaf 

process 

hiccough 

victuals 

architect 

perspiration 

parent 

coffee 

depot 

figure 

forehead 

hostess 

patent 

tassel 

courtesy 

launch 

tedious 

sergeant 

again 

By  means  of  a  little  mark,  the  dictionary  tells  which  syllable 
of  a  word  receives  the  accent.     Look  up  the  following.     DonH 


guess. 

ally 

allied 

recess 

detail 

idea 

address 

expert 

finance 

express 

mustache 

entire 

superfluous 

detour 

resource 

alloy 

romance 

influence 

mischievous 

inquiry 

admirable 

interesting 

illustrate 

comparable 

hospitable 

reputable 

exquisite 

combatant 

concentrate 

208 


DRILL  EXERCISES 


209 


Probably  you  understand  and  employ  at  least  twenty- 
five  French  terms;  and  in  your  daily  vocabulary  are  hun- 
dreds of  words  which  are  French,  though  they  were  brought 
into  our  language  so  long  ago  that  they  seem  to  be  pure 
English.  An  hour  may  be  spent  pleasantly,  and  perhaps 
not  unprofitably,  in  making  a  French  tour  through  an 
English  dictionary. 

Look  up  the  following  words.     How  are  they  pronounced? 


garage 

coupe 

viscount 

en  route 

chauffeur 

adieu 

valet 

detour 

limousine 

au  revoir 

bouquet 

debris 

table  d'hote 

buffet 

ragout 

entree 

a  la  carte 

bouillon 

mayonnaise 

menu 

cafe 

consomme 

potpourri 

dessert 

chef 

cuisine 

bonbon 

fricassee 

cabaret 

connoisseur 

rendezvous 

billet  doux 

ballet 

encore 

vaudeville 

debut 

attache 

debutante 

finale 

foyer 

protege 

decollete 

trousseau 

coiffure 

fiance 

reveille 

negligee 

seance 

nom  de  plume 

fleur  de  lis 

par  excellence  chassis 

SPELLING 

Unless  one  knows  definitely  what  line  of  business  he  is  to 
follow,  it  is  not  profitable  for  him  to  learn  long  lists  of  com- 
mercial terms.  A  command  of  the  names  of  all  the  many 
things  sold  in  a  hardware  store  would  be  of  little  service  to 
one  who  finds  employment  with  a  wholesale  provision  firm. 
Some  things  must  be  left  till  after  a  position  has  been  se- 
cured. There  are,  however,  terms  employed  so  generally 
throughout  the  business  world  that  they  should  receive  at- 
tention before  one  leaves  school.  Business  men  have  good 
cause  to  complain  if  their  clerks  are  not  masters  of  this 
common  vocabulary. 


210 


JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 


Here  is  a  list  of  commercial  terms  each  of  which  might  be 
misspelled.  Not  a  few  of  them  have  found  a  place  in  earlier 
exercises.  Test  yourself.  Probably  you  will  not  find  over 
five  or  six  that  are,  to  yoUy  troublesome.  They  are  the  five  or 
six  that  you  should  study  closely.  Perhaps  they  obey  some  of 
the  rules  for  spelling.  If  not,  fix  them  in  your  mind  as  best 
you  can. 


business 

proprietor 

account 

merchandise 

office 

partner 

itemized 

cargo 

applicant 

management 

statement 

allotment 

advertisement 

employee 

remittance 

label 

position 

apprentice 

interest 

commercial 

bookkeeper 

representative 

principal 

lease 

typewriter 

retailer 

capital 

salable 

stenographer 

wholesaler 

debtor 

schedule 

assistant 

compensation 

creditor 

illegal 

cashier 

salary 

depositor 

competition 

secretary 

expense 

settlement 

article 

messenger 

financial 

estimate 

assortment 

Business  is  carried  on  to  such  an  extent  through  cor- 
respondence, and  correctly  written  letters  and  circulars  are 
considered  so  important  in  securing  and  holding  trade,  that 
often  large  salaries  are  paid  to  men  who  attend  to  such  mat- 
ters and  nothing  else.  It  is  true  that  men  who  command 
large  salaries  are  able  to  do  far  more  than  simply  spell 
correctly,  yet  ability  to  spell  is  of  course  essential.  In  this 
exercise  and  the  next  are  given  words  commonly  employed 
in  business  correspondence.  Every  one  of  them  might  occur 
in  a  single  long  letter  or  circular.  Are  you  positive  that  you 
could  write,  from  dictation,  a  letter  containing  all  of  them? 
Test  yourself. 


DRILL  EXERCISES 


211 


writer 

reference 

acknowledge 

testimonial 

writing 

address 

response 

classification 

written 

appreciate 

accommodate 

decision 

communication 

courteous 

facilitate 

convenience 

correspondence 

hoping 

advice 

estimate 

inquiry 

truly 

advise 

receipt 

referring 

apologize 

correction 

omission 

received 

compliments 

iccommend 

compete 

verify 

attention 

3 

shading 

customary 

preference 

commodity 

sacrifice 

memorandum 

preferring 

systematize 

exorbitant 

announcement 

applying 

series 

submitting 

enclosure 

quantity 

issued 

penalty 

efficiency 

supply 

economize 

equipment 

guarantee 

serviceable 

tentative 

specification 

agreeable 

transferable 

solicit 

overdue 

wholly 

The  following  business  terms  are  less  common  than  those 
found  in  earlier  lists.  First  run  through  them  to  see  how  many 
you  understand  sufficiently  well  to  explain  their  meaning. 
Perhaps  the  instructor  will  see  fit  to  assign  a  few  words  to 
different  members  of  the  class  to  look  up  in  the  dictionary. 

endorsement      tariff  calendar 

lease  accountant  current 

dictaphone         disbursements      assignee 


commission 

maximum 

minimum 

dividend 

installment 

premium 

inventory 

draft 

jobber 

pecuniary 

indemnify 

maturity 


multigraph 

tonnage 

carriage 

embezzle 

fraudulent 

rating 

assess 

redeemable 

negotiable 


rebate 
assets 
liabilities 

receiver 

deficit 

collateral 

promissory 

lien 

extension 


consignee 

security 

appraisal 

entail 

assignment 

affidavit 

credentials 

accrued 

depreciate 


212 


JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 


In  the  following  lists  are  brought  together  words  commonly 
used  in  all  correspondence.  Taken  with  the  words  found  in 
the  three  exercises  immediately  preceding,  they  furnish  appro- 
priate material  for  a  spelling  match. 


desirable 

improving 

successful 

suflBcient 

equality 

forcibly 

finally 

noticeable 

qualify 

already 

complete 

accidentally 

changeable 

occasion 

wholly 

wherever 

recently 

scarcely 

scheme 

useful 

undoubtedly 

apparent 

assistance 

ability 

approach 

careful 

argument 

choosing 

deceive 

doubtful 

difference 

comparison 

commence 

planning 

particular 

opportunity 

hurriedly 

realize 

formerly 

benefit 

controlling 

partially 

immediately 

similar 

disappoint 

interfere 

accept 

except 

particular 

requirement 

beginning 

skillful 

compelled 

develops 

tomorrow 

ninth 

fourth 

fortieth 

twentieth 

twenty-ninth 

ninety-ninth 

eleventh 

annual 

preceding 

necessary 

necessity 

acquire 

endeavor 

advancement 

judgment 

obliged 

emergency 

positive 

accuracy 

scarcity 

announce 

valuing 

proceeds 

excess 

essential 

allowance 

compel 

privilege 

reliable 

piece 

exceed 

occurred 

occurring 

permissible 

personal 

average 

character 

PUNCTUATION 

Rule.  —  The  semicolon  is  used  between  sentences  so  closely 
related  that  it  is  undesirable  to  separate  them  with  a  period. 

Used  in  this  way,  the  semicolon  resembles  a  weak  period. 
Think  of  it  as  such  and  you  should  have  no  trouble  in  em- 
ploying it  correctly.     Note  the  following  examples: 


DRILL  EXERCISES  213 

I  hope  you  can  be  present;   it  will  be  a  great  disappointment 

to  the  boys  if  you  are  unable  to  come. 
You  can  hold  a  firefly  in  your  hand;   you  can  boil  water  with 

an  incandescent  lamp. 

Each  example  is  made  up  of  two  sentences  that  are  gram- 
matically complete  and  independent,  with  the  regular  equip- 
ment of  subject  and  predicate.  In  each  example,  what 
precedes  the  semicolon  makes  sense  when  considered  sepa- 
rately, and  the  same  is  true  of  what  follows  the  semicolon. 
A  period  might  properly  have  been  employed;  but  the  writer, 
feeling  that  the  two  statements  were  closely  related,  wanted 
to  link  them  closely.  He  did  so  by  substituting  the  semi- 
colon for  the  period. 

Here  is  a  word  of  caution:  You  may  read  page  after  page 
in  many  a  well- written  book  without  seeing  a  semicolon. 
It  is  almost  a  luxury  mark.  Young  writers  are  urged  to  use 
it  sparingly,  always,  when  in  doubt  whether  to  use  the  period 
or  the  semicolon,  choosing  the  period.  Short  sentences  are 
better  than  loosely  jointed  long  ones. 

1 

In  each  of  the  following,  taken  from  books  and  magazines, 
the  writer  employs  a  semicolon.  Can  you  tell  where?  Prove, 
if  you  can,  that  in  each  case  a  period  would  have  served  nearly 
as  well. 

1.  Health  is  the  working  man's  capital  having  lost  it  he  is 
a  bankrupt.  2.  They  are  beaten  the  war  is  over.  3.  Not  a 
living  thing  grew  on  the  forest  floor  it  was  simply  a  carpet 
of  brownish  tiny  needle-like  dead  leaves  and  of  sticks  and 
fallen  tree  trunks.  4.  At  one  time  General  Pershing's  father 
was  a  section  boss  on  a  railroad  later  he  was  a  storekeeper  a 
farmer  and  a  clerk  in  a  clothing  store.  5.  One  goes  to  the 
right  and  one  to  the  left  both  are  wrong  but  in  different  direc- 
tions. 6.  Bennie  never  had  a  chance  to  bring  his  speeches  to  a 
voluntary  stop  somebody  always  interrupted.    7.    Do  not  carry 


214  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

a  lighted  heater  from  room  to  room  you  may  stumble  and  up- 
set or  drop  it  spilling  the  oil  and  starting  a  fire.  8.  Evil  man- 
ners soil  a  fine  dress  more  than  mud  good  manners  by  their 
deeds  easily  adorn  a  humble  garb.  9.  To  have  a  great  man  for 
an  intimate  friend  seems  pleasant  to  those  who  have  never 
tried  it  those  who  have  fear  it. 

10.    Errors  like  straws  upon  the  surface  flow 

He  who  would  search  for  pearls  must  dive  below. 

—  Dbyden 

Rule.  —  The  semicolon  is  sometimes  placed  between  two 
phrases  or  two  clauses  in  parallel  construction  when  one  or 
both  are  broken  by  the  comma. 

The  semicolon  thus  employed  is  like  an  extra  large  comma, 
helping  the  reader  to  see  at  a  glance  where  each  phrase  or 
clause  leaves  off  and  the  next  begins.  Notice  the  following 
sentence : 

He  read  stories  of  adventure,  lives  of  great  men,  j)oems. 

Here  we  have  three  terms  in  parallel  construction  —  stories 
of  adventure,  lives  oj  great  men,  and  poems.  They  are  in 
parallel  construction  because  all  three  are  objects  of  the 
verb  read.     Now  let  us  expand  the  sentence. 

He  read  stories  of  adventure,  especially  tales  of  the  sea  and 
the  forest,  such  as  Cooper  wrote,  lives  of  great  men  — ■ 
pioneers,  inventors,  military  commanders,  poems,  par- 
ticularly such  stirring  pieces  as  Ivry  and  Horatius  at  the 
Bridge. 

This  sentence  is  not  clear.  It  still  contains  but  three  terms, 
but  one  cannot  tell  at  a  glance  where  one  term  leaves  off 
and  the  next  begins.  See  what  a  change  is  made  by  using 
big  commas: 

He  read  stories  of  adventure,  especially  tales  of  the  sea 
and  the  forest,  such  as  Cooper  wrote,  lives  of  great 
men  —  pioneers,  inventors,  military  commanders,  poems. 


DRILL  EXERCISES  215 

particularly  such  stirring  pieces  as  Ivry  and  Horatius  at 
the  Bridge. 

But  instead  of  big  commas  we  employ  the  semicolon,  thus: 

He  read  stories  of  adventure,  especially  tales  of  the  sea  and 
the  forest,  such  as  Cooper  wrote;  lives  of  great  men  — 
pioneers,  inventors,  military  commanders;  poems,  par- 
ticularly such  spirited  pieces  as  Ivry  and  Horatius  at 
the  Bridge. 

One  word  of  caution  is  necessary.  The  semicolon  is  never 
properly  used  between  a  principal  and  a  subordinate  ele- 
ment. For  instance,  it  is  not  used  between  a  dependent 
clause  and  the  independent  clause  which  follows.  The 
phrases  or  clauses  must  be  in  parallel  construction,  used  in 
the  same  grammatical  way. 

2 

Findy  in  the  following ^  "places  where  the  semicolon,  used  like 
a  large  commas  would  be  an  aid  to  clearness. 

1.  Three  things  are  necessary:  first  a  sound  body  second 
a  good  mind  third  and  this  is  most  important  of  all  a  good 
character. 

2.  There  was  honest  cock  robin  the  favorite  game  of  the  strip- 
ling sportsman  with  its  loud  querulous  notes  and  the  twittering 
blackbird  flying  in  sable  clouds  and  the  gold-winged  woodpecker 
with  his  crimson  crest  his  broad  black  gorget  and  splendid 
plumage  and  the  cedar  bird  with  its  red-tipt  wings  and  yellow- 
tipt  tail  and  its  little  monteiro  cap  of  feathers  and  the  blue 
jay  that  noisy  coxcomb  in  his  gay  light-blue  coat  and  white  under- 
clothes screaming  chattering  bobbing  and  nodding  and  bowing  and 
pretending  to  be  on  good  terms  with  every  songster  of  the  grove. 

3.  When  the  Pizarro  brothers  captured  the  Peruvian  king 
the  royal  captive  standing  in  a  room  twenty-two  feet  long  and 
seventeen  wide  made  a  mark  on  the  wall  as  high  as  he  could 
reach  offering  for  his  freedom  gold  enough  to  fill  the  room 
up   to   that   mark   and    this   enormous   ransom  amounting   to 


216  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

$15,000,000  in  gold  was  easily  raised  and  a  large  amount  of 
silver  as  well. 

4.  The  schoolhouse  being  deserted  soon  fell  to  decay  and 
was  reported  to  be  haunted  by  the  ghost  and  the  plowboy 
loitering  homeward  of  a  still  summer  evening  has  often  fancied 
his  voice  chanting  a  melancholy  psalm  tune  among  the  tranquil 
solitudes  of  Sleepy  Hollow. 

5.  Not  a  limb  nor  a  fiber  about  him  was  idle  and  to  have 
seen  his  loosely  hung  frame  in  full  motion  and  clattering  about 
the  room  you  would  have  thought  Saint  Vitus  himself  that 
blessed  patron  of  the  dance  was  figuring  before  you  in  person. 


COURSE  VII 

COMPOSITION 

Making  Up  One's  Mind 

Practice  in  thinking  straight 

DRILL 

Pronunciation 
Final  tests 

Spelling 

Words  often  confused 

Punctuation 

The  parenthesis 
The  dash 
Review  exercises 


MAKING  UP  ONE'S  MIND 

A  toddling  child  sees  a  bee.  The  bee  is  pretty.  It  makes 
a  pleasing  noise.  It  looks  good  to  eat.  The  child  makes  up 
his  mind  that  he  wants  the  bee;  but  when  his  hand  reaches 
for  it,  mother  interferes,  and  the  child  wails,  and  the  bee  flies 
away.  What  is  the  trouble  with  the  child's  reasoning?  In 
making  up  his  mind,  the  child  is  unaware  of  one  of  the  most 
interesting  facts  about  the  bee,  namely,  that  it  stings; 
and  he  accepts  as  fact  another  thing  which  is  not  true  at  all. 
Bees  are  not  good  to  eat. 

Making  up  one's  mind  usually  calls  for  the  collecting  of 
facts.  The  trail  simply  leads  from  one  fact  to  the  next  till 
all  have  been  examined.  But,  like  the  little  child,  we  some- 
times overlook  a  fact,  or  we  accept  as  true  something  that 
is  not  so.  Without  stopping  to  investigate  thoroughly, 
we  "jump  at  conclusions."  Because  we  are  ignorant,  we 
blunder.  One  reason  why  the  young  are  sent  to  school  and 
to  college  is  that  they  may  get  a  good  supply  of  facts  such 
as  every  one  needs  in  order  to  make  up  his  mind  wisely  in 
regard  to  important  matters. 

EXERCISE  1 

Write  dowriy  in  complete  sentences^  all  the  things  you  would 
wish  to  know  before  making  up  your  mind  in  regard  to  two 
of  the  following.  Underline  items  which  one  given  to  hasty 
decisions  might  overlook. 

1.  Accepting  a  position  as  clerk  in  a  certain  store  or  office. 
2.    Taking  medicine  that  has  been  recommended.     3.    Giving 

219 


220  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

money  to  a  beggar.  4.  Buying  a  dress,  or  a  suit  of  clothes,  or 
a  certain  make  of  automobile.  5.  Accepting  a  recruit  (assum- 
ing that  you  are  a  recruiting  oflficer).  6.  Engaging  a  clerk 
(assuming  that  you  are  a  merchant).  7.  Moving  into  a  certain 
neighborhood.     8.    Voting  for  a  baseball  captain. 

How  do  we  get  facts?  Directly,  sometimes,  as  when  one 
bites  into  an  apple  to  discover  whether  it  is  sweet  or  sour. 
More  often  we  get  them  indirectly,  through  asking  ques- 
tions and  through  reading.  That  is  to  say,  we  rely  upon 
the  testimony  of  others.  If  a  man's  car  will  not  go,  he  may 
send  to  a  garage  for  an  expert  to  tell  him  what  is  the  matter. 
If  he  is  in  doubt  whether  the  word  allies  should  receive  the 
accent  on  the  first  syllable  or  the  second,  he  turns  to  a  dic- 
tionary. Our  heads  are  full  of  facts,  ideas,  notions,  that 
have  come  to  us  second-hand  in  this  way  through  testimony. 

Perseverance  in  collecting  testimony  is  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance in  making  up  one's  mind.  It  is  the  person  who  is 
willing  to  take  the  trouble  to  find  out  things  who  makes  the 
fewest  blunders.  Harsh  as  it  sounds,  undoubtedly  it  is 
true  that  a  main  reason  why  so  many  people  make  up  their 
minds  incorrectly  is  that  so  many  people  are  lazy.  But 
skill  in  weighing  testimony  is  of  equal  importance.  Not  all 
that  one  hears  is  trustworthy.  For  example,  two  eye- 
witnesses, equally  truthful,  may  not  give  precisely  the  same 
account  of  a  street  accident.  Through  carelessness,  through 
love  of  exaggeration,  through  prejudice,  anger,  or  sheer  dis- 
honesty, a  story  which  misrepresents  the  facts  gets  started, 
and  if  repeated  often  enough,  may  gain  belief. 

Two  things  in  particular  need  special  emphasis  in  con- 
nection with  this  matter  of  getting  at  facts  through  other 
people.  The  first  is  this:  When  after  a  fact  that  is  of  real 
importance,  go  straight  to  headquarters  for  it,  no  matter 
how  much  time  and  labor  it  may  require.  Your  mother, 
when  she  thinks  you  are  dangerously  ill,  does  not  give  you 
a  remedy  advertised  in  a  newspaper,  nor  one  offered  by  a 


MAKING  UP  ONE'S  MIND  221 

kind  neighbor,  nor  one  recommended  by  a  clerk  at  tke 
corner  drug  store.  She  sends  for  the  best  doctor  she  is 
able  to  employ.  She  goes  to  headquarters.  The  second  is 
this:  Be  absolutely  open-minded.  It  is  so  easy,  so  human, 
if  you  are  *'down  on'*  somebody,  to  believe  all  the  bad  things 
said  about  him.  It  is  just  as  easy,  just  as  human,  to  believe 
all  the  favorable  things  that  are  said,  if  they  help  you  to 
believe  what  you  want  very  much  to  believe.  Truth  is  the 
thing  to  be  sought.  Whether  the  truth  is  pleasant  or  un- 
pleasant is  of  no  importance  whatever,  when  one  is  trying 
to  make  up  his  mind. 

EXERCISE  2 

Show  what  ''going  to  headquarters'*  means  in  each  of  the 
following: 

1.  Determining  the  spelling  of  a  certain  word. 

2.  Finding  out  what  is  the  capital  of  Nebraska. 

3.  Making  a  list  of  the  generals  prominent  in  the  Civil  War. 

4.  Finding  the  principal  facts  concerning  a  prominent  Ameri- 

can still  living. 

5.  Determining  how  much  wheat  the  country  raised  in  1900. 

6.  Learning  how  copper  is  mined. 

7.  Finding  out  what  is  the  lesson  in  English  for  tomorrow,  in 

case  you  have  forgotten. 


EXERCISE  3 

Point  out  the  weakness  in  each  of  the  following  chains  of 
reasoning: 

1.  It  must  be  true,  for  every  one  says  so. 

2.  My  friend's  friend's  friend  says  it  is  so;    therefore  it  must 

be  true. 

3.  It  must  be  so,  for  I  read  it  in  the  paper. 

4.  The  gloves  were  wonderfully   cheap;    I  got  them  at  a 

bargain  sale. 


222  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

5.  It  must  be  a  wonderfully  rich  mine;    the  broker  who  sold 

me  stock  in  it  says  so. 

6.  You  should  hear  grandfather  tell  of  the  cold  weather  of 

his  boyhood  days.     Our  winters  are  growing  milder. 

7.  He  says  it  is  a  stupid  book;    in  fact  it  is  so  dry  that  he 

read  but  five  pages. 

8.  My  friend  the  machinist  says  my  bicycle  is  a  fine  one, 

but  Ted  Jones  and  Bill  Smith  both  say  that  it  is  "no 
good."    That  makes  two  to  one.    I'm  sorry  I  bought  it. 

9.  **Pooh!  pooh!"  repeated  the  goldfish  as  he  gently  bumf)ed 

his  nose  here  and  there  against  his  little  glass  jar;  "say 
what  you  will,  the  world  is  a  very  small  world  — 
some  three  times  the  length  of  my  body  at  most." 

Six  men  went  to  "see"  an  elephant,  "though  all  of  them 
were  blind."  One,  happening  to  fall  against  the  elephant's 
side,  exclaimed,  "How  like  a  wall  he  is!"  Another,  feeling 
of  a  tusk,  thought  him  very  like  a  spear;  a  third,  taking  hold 
of  the  squirming  trunk,  was  very  sure  that  the  animal  re- 
sembled a  snake.  "No,"  objected  a  fourth,  feeling  of  a 
knee,  "he  is  like  a  tree."  But  the  fifth,  encountering  an 
ear,  thought  him  decidedly  like  a  fan,  and  he  who  found  the 
elephant's  tail  was  positive  the  beast  resembled  a  rope. 

A  picture  combining  all  the  conclusions  reached  by  the 
men  in  this  Hindu  legend  would  show  a  perfectly  impossible 
elephant;  yet  they  employed  a  method  of  reasoning  so  com- 
mon that  every  one  uses  it  scores  of  times  every  day.  Like 
Sherlock  Holmes,  we  play  the  detective,  trying  to  discover 
facts  through  collecting  and  interpreting  signs.  While 
walking  along  the  beach,  we  see  footprints.  "A  little  child 
has  been  here  before  us,"  some  one  may  remark.  "It  was 
not  long  since,  for  an  hour  ago  the  tide  covered  the  beach. 
And  see!  Here  the  little  one  stopped  to  dig  in  the  sand. 
You  think  it  was  a  boy?  No,  there  is  a  hair  ribbon  which 
must  have  slipped  from  a  braid.  Boys  do  not  wear  ribbons. 
But  wait!     Perhaps  it  was  a  boy  and  a  girl,  for  here  are 


MAKING  UP  ONE'S  MIND  223 

two  sets  of  footprints,  not  of  the  same  size."  Thus  we  try 
to  reason  things  out  in  matters  of  httle  importance;  and  in 
precisely  the  same  way  are  conclusions  sometimes  reached  in 
law  cases  where  human  life,  even,  may  be  at  stake. 

The  six  men  in  the  legend  were  blind.  But  even  when  all 
the  senses  are  alert,  this  form  of  reasoning  has  its  dangers. 
First,  some  of  the  signs  may  be  overlooked.  It  will  not  do 
to  conclude  too  hastily  that  the  loud  snores  coming  from  the 
couch  mean  that  Tom  is  fast  asleep.  A  sharp  pair  of  eyes 
might  note  a  suspicious  smile  on  the  alleged  sleeper's  face. 
Perhaps  the  boy  is  shamming.  Second,  a  sign  that  has 
nothing  to  do  with  the  case  may  somehow  get  mixed  in 
with  the  others.  Glancing  through  a  doorway,  we  observe 
signs  which  lead  us  to  conclude  that  a  room  is  occupied  by  a 
boy  fond  of  athletics;  for  among  other  things  noted  is  a 
football.  Investigation,  however,  may  show  that  the  foot- 
ball has  been  left  by  a  caller,  the  captain  of  the  school  team, 
and  that  the  room  is  occupied  by  a  boy  who  cares  little  for 
games.  Third,  signs  are  misinterpreted.  Shabby  clothing, 
though  commonly  a  sign  of  poverty,  may  also  indicate  not 
poverty  but  a  miserly  disposition.  A  gruff  answer  may  be 
interpreted  as  an  indication  of  ill  will,  yet  in  reality  be  due 
to  toothache.  Fourth,  the  common  mistake  may  occur  of 
balancing  signs  carelessly.  Twenty  signs  may  point  to  a 
person's  guilt,  one  sign  to  his  innocence,  yet  the  one  sign  be 
of  more  worth  than  all  the  rest.  And  finally,  we  some- 
times trust  to  signs  when  a  little  labor  would  suffice  to  de- 
termine things  with  absolute  accuracy.  You  hear  a  certain 
sound  and  exclaim,  "It's  raining."  By  going  to  the  door, 
you  could  make  perfectly  sure. 

EXERCISE  4 

Show  that  reasoning  from  sign  may  be  employed  (a)  by  the 
clerk,  when  a  customer  approaches  his  counter;    (b)   by  the 


224  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

scout,  as  he  creeps  through  the  enemy's  line  under  cover  of 
darkness;  (c)  by  tfie  business  many  when  interviewing  an  ap- 
plicant for  a  position;  (d)  by  the  stranger  in  town,  trying  to 
decide  which  of  two  restaurants  to  enter;  (e)  by  a  visitor,  mak- 
ing up  his  mind  whether  a  school  is  doing  good  work;  (/)  by  a 
detective,  in  clearing  up  a  burglary  mystery. 

What  signs  do  you  look  for  in  determining  (a)  whether  a 
library  book  is  likely  to  prove  interesting;  (b)  whether  a  strange 
dog  may  be  treated  in  a  friendly  manner;  (c)  whether  a  stranger, 
to  whom  you  have  applied  for  a  position,  will  make  a  good  em- 
ployer; (d)  whether  a  stranger  belongs  to  the  educated  class; 
(e)  whether  a  new  boy  in  school  will  prove  to  be  a  good  fellow; 
(/)  whether  the  writer  of  a  letter  is  well  bred;  (g)  whether  a  man 
is  rich  or  poor? 

EXERCISE  5 

Perform  any  one  of  tlie  following  tasks: 

1.  Describe  a  room  in  such  a  way  as  to  reveal  as  many  things 
as  you  can  about  the  person  who  occupies  it. 

2.  Describe  a  house,  a  street,  or  a  neighborhood,  in  such  a 
way  as  to  reveal  the  character  of  the  inhabitants  —  their 
poverty,  for  example. 

3.  Retell  a  story  by  Conan  Doyle,  or  some  other  writer  of 
detective  tales,  in  which  argument  from  signs  plays  an  im- 
portant part. 

4.  Recount  one  of  your  own  experiences  in  which  you  were 
able  to  reach  a  right  conclusion  through  reading  signs;  or  one 
in  which  you  failed  to  reach  a  right  conclusion,  through  over- 
looking signs,  through  carelessly  interpreting  signs,  or  through 
some  other  error. 

5.  Recount  an  experience  in  which  you  were  punished  for 
relying  upon  signs  when  absolute  facts  might  have  been  ascer- 
tained through  a  little  effort. 

C.  Review  Exercise  4,  showing  how,  under  the  circumstances 
suggested,  errors  in  judgment  might  occur. 


I^IAKING  UP  ONE'S  MIND  225 

Making  up  one's  mind  often  calls  for  the  balancing  of 
advantages  and  disadvantages.  Sometimes  this  is  a  dif- 
ficult matter.  We  do  not  always  succeed  in  thinking  of 
every  advantage  and  disadvantage;  some  escape  us.  Even 
if  all  are  discovered,  it  may  prove  difficult  to  balance  them 
fairly,  for  the  desire  of  the  moment  may  make  one  side  or 
the  other  seem  brighter  than  it  really  is;  and  in  reaching 
decisions  where  many  are  concerned,  we  forget  that  what  is 
good  for  one  may  not  be  best  for  others. 

EXERCISE  6 

Keeping  simply  yourself  in  mind,  write  down  and  number 
the  disadvantages  and  the  advantages  connected  with  any  one 
of  the  eight  things  mentioned  in  the  list  below.  Arrange  the 
items  in  climax  order;  that  is,  begin  with  the  least  important 
and  work  toward  the  most  important.  Check  items  which  some 
other  person  might  reasonably  wish  not  to  have  appear  in  the 
lists  where  you  have  placed  them.  That  is,  show  that  what  are 
disadvantages  to  you  might  rightly  be  considered  advantages 
by  another. 

1.  Taking  an  active  part  in  school  athletics.  2.  Becoming 
a  Boy  Scout  or  a  Campfire  Girl.     3.    Taking  the  Commercial 

Course.     4.    Living  in (a  particular  city).     5.    Owning 

a  dog.     6.    Taking  charge  of  a  paper  route.     7.    Living  on 

street.     8.    Earning  money  while  attending  school. 

EXERCISE  7 

State  a  preference  suggested  by  one  of  the  following,  and  give, 
in  a  four-minute  talk,  the  trail  your  mind  followed  in  reaching 
a  conclusion. 

1.    Attending  a  public  school  vs.  attending  a  private  school. 

2.    Trading  with vs.   trading  with .      3.   as 

a  baseball  captain  vs. as  captain.     4.    Joining  the  navy 

vs.  joining  the  army.     5.    Football  vs.  baseball.     6.    Working 


226  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

in  an  office  vs.  learning  a  trade.  7.  Being  an  office  clerk  vs. 
being  a  salesman.  8.  Living  in  the  country  vs.  living  in  the 
city.  9.  A  long  school  session  without  home  work  vs.  a  short 
session  with  home  work.  10.  Going  to  college  after  leaving 
high  school  vs.  going  into  business.  11.  Seeing  a  real  play 
vs.  going  to  the  "movies." 

This  task  is  difficult  since  two  sets  of  advantages  and  dis- 
advantages must  be  worked  out.  Try  to  be  an  impartial 
judge,  estimating  fairly.  Your  decision,  it  is  needless  to 
say,  will  depend  upon  a  number  of  conditions.  In  com- 
paring private  schools  with  public,  for  example,  it  will 
make  a  difference  what  particular  schools  you  have  in  mind, 
and  also  whether  you  are  deciding  for  yourself  or  for  some 
other  person.  In  argument  misunderstandings  often  arise 
in  this  way  between  two  persons  who  are  really  of  the  same 
mind,  but  who,  unconsciously,  are  shooting  at  different 
targets.  Therefore  at  the  outset  clear  away  all  possible  mis- 
understandings by  explaining  definitely  what  the  question  is 
that  you  are  deciding.  It  will  be  well  to  keep  in  mind,  when 
preparing  your  talk,  some  such  plan  as  the  following: 

1.  A  statement,  very  definite,  of  the  question  to  be  decided. 

2.  Advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the  side  you  do  not  favor. 

3.  Disadvantages  and  advantages  of  the  side  you  do  favor. 

4.  Comparison  and  conclusion. 

Have  your  points  jotted  down  on  a  card  and  consult  it, 
if  necessary,  as  you  talk. 

"All  the  little  children  I  have  ever  known  are  afraid  of 
the  dark.  All  the  little  children  I  have  ever  heard  of  have 
been  afraid  of  the  dark.  I  myself,  when  a  .little  child,  was 
afraid  of  the  dark.  Therefore  I  conclude  that  every  little 
child  —  this  five-year-old  coming  down  the  street,  for  ex- 
ample —  is  afraid  of  the  dark."  Such  is  the  trail  followed 
in  reaching  many  a  conclusion.  From  our  own  experience 
and  from  the  testimony  of  others  we  collect  examples  until 


MAKING  UP  ONE'S  MIND  227 

w^e  have  so  many  that  it  seems  safe  to  make  a  general  rule. 
Then  we  apply  the  rule,  much  as  a  carpenter  applies  his  foot 
rule  to  a  stick  of  timber  to  see  if  it  will  answer  his  purpose. 

Here  is  a  second  illustration:  "Harry  and  I  are  old  friends. 
Never  have  I  known  him  to  break  his  word.  Therefore, 
since  he  promised  to  meet  me  at  four,  he  will  surely  be  on 
hand."  In  this  case  the  mind  brings  into  review  the  past 
acts  of  Harry,  particularly  those  having  to  do  with  keeping 
appointments.  These  acts  the  mind  arranges  in  a  row,  as 
it  were,  for  examination,  and  finding  them  all  alike,  draws 
the  conclusion  that  his  future  acts  will  correspond,  that  he 
will  continue  to  keep  his  word. 

This  method  of  reasoning  has  its  weak  spots.  The  top 
layer  of  a  barrel  of  apples  may  show  none  but  perfect  fruit, 
yet  near  the  bottom  the  apples  may  be  imperfect.  Be- 
cause a  person  has  on  several  occasions  acted  unwisely,  as 
it  seems,  one  may  conclude  that  the  person  lacks  good  judg- 
ment, only  to  find  out  later  that  what  seemed  acts  of  poor 
judgment  were,  after  all,  acts  of  prudence.  By  way  of 
final  illustration,  here  is  a  typical  magazine  advertisement. 

It  tells  how  A ,  B ,  and  C ,  after  attending  a 

certain  school,  advanced  from  petty  clerkships  to  positions 
commanding  almost  fabulous  salaries.  The  reader  is  in- 
vited to  conclude  that  since  A ,  B ,  and  C suc- 
ceeded thus,  all  who  enroll  with  the  school  —  the  reader, 
for  example  —  will  meet  with  similar  success.  He  is  not 
expected  to  enquire  whether  these  three  men  are  the  only 
ones  who  have  succeeded,  whether  they  are  men  of  average 
ability,  and  whether  attending  the  school  was  the  only 
reason  for  their  advancement. 

Hasty,  careless  generalizations  of  this  sort  are  very  com- 
mon. They  are  more  common  among  the  young  than 
among  older  people,  more  common  among  those  who  have 
seen  little  of  the  world  than  among  those  who  have  seen 
much  of  the  world,  more  common  among  those  who  read 


228  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

little  than  among  those  who  have  read  widely  and  thought- 
fully. But  nearly  every  one  is  at  times  guilty  of  hasty 
generalizations.  Because  of  some  one  little  act,  not  in- 
frequently we  condemn  a  person's  character.  Because  we 
have  had  occasion  to  mistrust  a  single  individual,  we  be- 
come prejudiced  against  the  entire  race  to  which  he  belongs. 

EXERCISE  8 

Answer  thoughtfully  the  JoUovnng  questions: 

1.  Why  is  a  little  child  apt  to  generalize  —  that  is,  form 
general  rules  after  the  manner  that  has  been  explained  — 
incorrectly,  and  get  strange  ideas  into  his  head  at  which  we 
all  smile.'*  2.  Why  are  those  who  live  narrow  lives,  meeting 
few  people,  reading  few  books,  apt  to  form  conclusions  that  are 
not  true.'*  3.  Why  should  a  student  of  history  make  a  better 
president  than  one  who  has  had  little  education?  4.  Why, 
when  you  are  ill,  do  you  send  for  a  doctor  rather  than  for  a 
statesman,  even  though  the  statesman  is  by  far  the  "brainier" 
man.'*  5.  Why  does  a  man  seeking  election  point  to  his  record.'* 
6.  Why  cannot  an  **old  and  reliable'*  firm  afford  to  misrepresent 
in  advertisements? 

EXERCISE  9 

Criticize  the  reasoning  in  each  of  the  folloioing: 

1.  That  school  must  be  made  up  of  rowdies.     You  should 

have  seen  how  some  of  the  boys  behaved  after  the 
football  victory! 

2.  **I  know  a  girl,"  she  said,  "who  spent  four  years  in  a  high 

school  and  then  had  to  attend  business  college  for  six 
months  before  she  was  prepared  to  take  an  oflSce 
position.  High  schools  are  of  no  use,  if  you  are  going 
into  business.'* 

S.    Our  remedy  has  cured  thousands;    it  will  cure  you. 

4.  "How  ignorant  all  city  people  are,"  remarked  the  farmer's 
wife  to  a  neighbor.     "When  I  passed  the  honey  to  my 


MAKING  UP  ONE'S  MIND  229 

city  boarder,  she  smiled  and  said,  *Ah,  Mrs.  Brown, 
I  see   you   keep  a  bee.'  " 

5.  He's  stingy.    This  is  the  third  time  the  hat  has  been  passed, 

and  he  has  not  put  in  a  penny. 

6.  For  three  years  a-running  it  has  rained  on  circus  day. 

It  will  rain  on  circus  day  this  year. 

7.  I've  fished  that  brook  twenty  times  and  always  have  had 

good  luck.  If  you  fi^h  it,  you  will  have  good  luck 
too.  But  be  sure  not  to  go  on  Friday.  Friday  is  an 
unlucky  day  for  fishing. 

8.  We've  had  two  college  graduates  in  our  office  and  both 

have  been  failures.  A  college  education  is  of  no  use  to 
a  man  who  is  going  into  business. 

Many  points  of  discussion,  particularly  such  as  concern 
the  future,  cannot  be  settled  absolutely;  we  must  rest  con- 
tent with  probability.  When  the  farmer  plants  his  corn, 
he  hopes  for  a  good  yield.  The  ground  has  been  prepared 
very  carefully.  The  seed  has  been  tested  and  is  known  to 
be  good.  There  have  been  good  yields  in  previous  years. 
Nothing  is  certain,  but  the  probabilities  are  favorable.  Be- 
fore purchasing  a  supply  of  goods  for  winter  sale  the  mer- 
chant reasons  most  carefully  about  the  probability  of  getting 
his  money  back  together  with  a  profit,  trying  his  best  not 
to  overlook  or  overestimate  any  factor.  Before  accepting 
a  position  with  a  banking  concern,  the  young  man  estimates 
the  probability  of  advancement. 

The  more  common  errors  in  argument  of  this  kind  are 
easily  stated.  Forces  actively  at  work  are  overlooked,  as 
when  a  man  who  pushes  ahead  in  business  through  dis- 
honest means  fails  to  see  that  though,  for  the  time  being,  he 
is  making  money,  he  is  losing  his  good  name^  Forces  are 
wrongly  estimated,  through  hope  or  fear,  or  through  ig- 
norance. There  is  real  gold  and  there  is  "fool's  gold"; 
they  look  much  alike.  Superstition,  even,  enters  into  our 
calculations,  as  when  one  says,  "Oh  well,  I'm  always  lucky^ 


230  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

anyhow."  And  sometimes,  foolishly  enough,  we  go  on 
figuring  probabilities  when  the  thing  we  wish  for  is  utterly 
beyond  the  range  of  possibility,  as  we  might  know  if  we 
stopped  to  think  honestly  and  keenly  about  it,  not  letting 
our  desires  blind  us. 

EXERCISE  10 

By  way  of  practice  in  clear  thinking  and  accurate  statement, 
give  in  condensed  form  your  reasons  for  thinking  one  of  the 
following  assertions  true. 

1,  It  will  be  pleasant  tomorrow.  2.  School  will  be  in  session 
as   usual   next   Monday.      3.    I  shall   be   "well   off"   at  forty. 

4.    I  shall  go  to  college.     5. will  make  a  good  captain. 

6.    Our  team  will  win  the  game  with .     7.    There  will 

never  be  another  war  between  our  country  and  England. 
8.    Within  five  years  airships  will  be  commonly  employed  in 

transatlantic     passenger     service.      9.    Within   years    all 

our  railroads  will  be  owned  by  the  government.  10.  The 
population  of will  increase  rapidly. 

Not  only  in  reasoning  about  the  future,  going  from  cause 
to  effect,  do  we  estimate  probabilities,  but  in  reasoning  from 
effect  back  to  cause.  For  example,  you  fail  to  find  the  paper 
on  the  door  mat  when  you  get  up  in  the  morning.  Straight- 
way you  begin  to  reason.  **  Some  one  has  taken  it.  The  boy 
is  late  —  probably  overslept.  The  press  has  broken  down 
again.  No,  there  the  paper  is  yonder  in  the  barberry  bushes; 
the  wind  must  have  blown  it  away."  The  farmer  whose 
crop  is  poor  tries  to  reason  out  the  probable  cause.  The 
merchant  whose  sales  are  falling  off  lies  awake  nights  try- 
ing to  discover  which  of  many  things  is  resf)onsible.  The 
doctor  examines  his  patient  with  the  greatest  care,  that  he 
may  get  at  the  probable  cause  of  the  illness. 

The  pitfalls  in  this  form  of  reasoning  have  already  been 
pointed  out.     Causes  are  overlooked  or  wrongly  estimated; 


MAKING  UP  ONE'S  MIND  £31 

we  are  apt  to  accept  the  first  solution  that  occurs  to  us. 
We  include  in  our  survey  causes  which  do  not  exist,  and 
others  which  have  nothing  whatever  to  do  with  the  case, 
as  when  a  superstitious  person  attributes  his  failure  to  the 
fact  that  he  began  an  enterprise  on  Friday  the  thirteenth. 

EXERCISE  11 

Point  out  the  weakness  in  each  of  the  following: 

1.  My  marks  are  lower  this  month  than  they  were  last  month, 
although  I  have  studied  much  harder.  The  teacher  must  be 
"down"  on  me.  2.  Some  one  must  have  stolen  my  bicycle. 
I  left  it  by  the  curb  when  I  entered  the  house,  and  when 
I  came  out  it  was  gone.  3.  Thirteen  is  an  unlucky  num- 
ber. The  night  I  slept  in  room  13,  war  broke  out  in  Europe. 
4.  As  the  mercury  fell,  the  air  grew  cooler.  The  cooler  tempera- 
ture must  have  been  caused  by  the  falling  mercury.  5.  After 
taking  two  bottles  of  your  remedy,  I  felt  as  well  as  ever.  You 
have  saved  my  life.  6.  Two  days  after  I  removed  the  goldfish 
from  their  little  jar  and  placed  them  in  a  commodious  tank, 
newly  painted  an  attractive  green,  they  died.  Too  much  water 
is  bad  for  goldfish.  7.  When  I  asked  Mary  what  time  it  was, 
she  glanced  at  the  clock  and  said,  "Ten  thirty."  A  few  minutes 
later  I  looked  myself  and  found  it  was  nine  forty-five.  Mary 
meant  to  deceive  me.  8.  It  was  the  last  straw  that  broke  the 
camel's  back. 

In  settling  a  case  of  right  and  wrong,  we  try  to  bring  the 
case  under  some  commonly  accepted  rule  or  law.  For  ex- 
ample, all  agree  that  it  is  cowardly  to  keep  silent  if  by  speak- 
ing out  one  may  save  an  innocent  person  from  punishment. 
Should  the  case  we  are  considering  be  one  that  clearly  be- 
longs under  this  law,  a  decision  can  be  reached  quickly  and 
surely.  But  sometimes  two  such  laws  are  in  conflict.  Thou 
shalt  not  take  another's  'property  without  permission  of  the 
owner  is  a  law  recognized  the  world  over.  Suppose,  however, 
that  to  save  a  life  you  must  steal  a  boat.     Thou  shalt  not  see 


232  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

thy  neighbor  drown  vnthout  attempting  to  save  him  may,  for 
the  moment,  become  the  higher  law. 

Two  little  tests  are  worth  applying  in  troublesome  cases. 
First,  Try  the  shoe  on  your  own  foot  first.  That  is,  in  making 
decisions  where  others  are  concerned,  form  the  habit  of 
putting  yourself  in  the  other  fellow's  place.  Second,  When 
you  are  deciding  a  case,  imagine  that  you  are  setting  an  ex- 
ample for  others  to  follow.  Ask  yourself.  Should  I  like  to 
have  everybody  in  the  world  do  what  I  am  about  to  do? 

EXERCISE  12 

First  give  your  answer  to  each  of  the  following  questions. 
Then  try  to  give  the  '* train  of  thought'*  which  led  you,  perhaps 
not  immediately,  but  after  turning  the  matter  over,  to  your 
decision. 

1.  The  umpire  calls  the  runner  out  at  second  base.  The 
baseman  knows  that  the  decision  is  wrong,  for  he  has  not 
touched  the  runner  with  the  ball.  Is  it  his  duty  to  tell  the 
umpire  of  his  mistake? 

2.  Three  boys  admit  that  one  of  them,  they  will  not  tell 
which  one,  broke  a  pane  of  glass  in  a  store  window.  Should 
all  be  punished  alike? 

3.  Mr.  Brown  struck  at  Mr.  Blue,  who  avoided  the  blow  by 
dodging;  but  in  doing  so  he  fell  over  and  broke  his  leg.  (1) 
Is  Mr.  Brown  right  in  refusing  to  pay  damages,  on  the  ground 
that  he  did  not  touch  Mr.  Blue?  (2)  Suppose  Mr.  Brown  did 
not  intend  to  strike  Mr.  Blue  but  simply  to  scare  him.  Would 
that  make  a  difference? 

4.  John  borrows  Peter's  arithmetic  paper,  copies  the  ex- 
amples, and  with  Peter's  knowledge  hands  the  work  to  his 
teacher,  who  assumes  that  it  is  John's  work.  (1)  Is  Peter 
guilty?    (2)  Should  he  *'tell  on"  John? 

5.  The  conductor  fails  to  take  Mary's  fare.  She  does  not 
call  attention  to  the  error;  for,  she  argues,  the  railroad  com- 
pany is  known  to  be  dishonest.  It  is  all  right  to  **get  even.'* 
Is  her  reasoning  sound? 


MAKING  UP  ONE'S  MIND 


233 


6.  Two  boys  are  fooling  in  classroom.  A  third  boy  is  drawn 
into  the  fun.  A  teacher,  suddenly  entering  the  room,  sees  that 
this  third  boy  is  out  of  order  and  imposes  a  penalty.  The  others 
escape  detection.  The  third  boy  claims  that  he  has  been  wrongly 
treated  (a)  because  he  did  not  begin  the  disorder,  (6)  because 
the  chief  offenders  have  not  been  punished.  Is  his  reasoning 
sound. 5^ 

7.  A  football  coach,  to  deceive  his  opponents,  permits  the 
false  rumor  to  spread  that  two  of  his  best  men  are  injured  and 
will  not  be  able  to  play  in  the  next  game.  Is  this  legitimate 
strategy? 

8.  Mr.  Jones  planted  a  hill  of  pumpkins  in  his  garden.  One 
vine,  with  a  fondness  for  travel,  crept  under  the  fence  into 


Mr.  Smith's  garden,  and  in  time  produced  a  large  pumpkin.    To 
whom  does  the  pumpkin  belong? 


EXERCISE   13 
Discuss  the  following  arguments: 

1.  I  should  not  be  punished  for  throwing  chalk.    Tom  threw 

chalk  first  and  I  threw  back  in  self-defense. 

2.  I  should  not  be  fined,  for  I  did  not  know  that  I  was  break- 

ing the  law. 


234  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

3.  I  am  treated  unjustly.    Because  I  made  trouble  last  year, 

the  teacher  is  always  watching  me,  so  I  get  caught 
every  time  I  do  anything  wrong. 

4.  I  ought  not  to  be  punished,  for  I  am  not  half  so  bad  as 

many  who  do  not  get  caught. 

5.  I  ought  not  to  be  punished  for  breaking  this  law;    for 

though  the  law  is  a  good  one  for  most  people,  it  does 
me  an  injustice. 

6.  *'You  should  not  blame  me  for  telling  you  that  the  ball 

bat  was  a  fine  one  when  I  knew  it  was  worthless,'* 
said  the  storekeeper;  "for  yesterday  I  saw  you  cheat 
the  umpire.'* 

7.  "You    ought    not    to    blame    me    for    eating    your   baby 

cricket,"  said  the  field  mouse  to  the  mother  cricket; 
"for  I  did  not  know  it  was  your  child.  Besides,  I 
have  apologized  handsomely." 

EXERCISE   14 

A  fallacy  is  an  unsound  or  deceptive  course  of  reasoning. 
It  may  take  any  one  of  many  forms,  and  when  cleverly  dis- 
guised is  hard  to  detect,  especially  in  the  heat  of  argument. 

Point  out  the  fallacy  in  each  of  the  following: 

1.  Many  great  men  have  been  wretched  penmen.     I  am  a 

wretched  penman;    therefore  I  shall  be  a  great  man. 

2.  Birds  can  fly.    I  am  much  larger  than  any  bird;   therefore 

I  should  be  able  to  fly. 

3.  Boys  should  not  be  allowed  to  go  in  bathing,  for  bathing 

frequently  leads  to  fatal  results. 

4.  If  I  want  a  canoe,  I  must  buy- one  or  steal  one.     Since 

I  cannot  degrade  myself  sufficiently  to  steal,  I  shall 
never  have  a  canoe  unless  I  buy  one. 

5.  Mary,  who  is  five  feet  tall,  looks  charming  in  a  blue  gown. 

Therefore  Ellen,  who  is  just  as  tall,  would  look  equally 
charming  in  a  blue  gown. 

6.  The  cake  I   made  this  morning  isn't  a  bit  good.     The 

flour  must  have  been  poor. 

7.  Father  does  it;   therefore  it  is  all  right  for  me  to  do  it. 


DRILL  EXERCISES 

PRONUNCIATION 

1 

As  a  final  test  of  your  ability  to  pronounce  common  words 
correctly y  try  the  following,  made  up  of  words  taken  from  pre- 
ceding exercises. 


doing 

evening 

connect 

kept 

general 

usually 

particular 

surprise 

different 

athletics 

column 

umbrella 

saw 

listen 

America 

catch 

gentlemen 

subject 

object 

because 

fellows 

professor 

introduce 

laugh 

aunt 

apparatus 

diphtheria 

together 

thousand 

Italian 

Tuesday 

juvenile 

peculiar 

deaf 

perspiration 

hostess 

architect 

allies 

idea 

recess 

finance 

getting 

interesting 

entire 

romance 

garage 

chauffeur 

detour 

hundred 

mustache 

picture 

poem 

athletics 

athletics 

athletics 

athletics 

Malce  a  list  of  the  words  you  have  discovered,  through  your 
study  of  the  preceding  exercises,  that  you  have  been  uncon- 
sciously mispronouncing. 

Make  a  list  of  the  words  commonly  mispronounced  by  your 
schoolmates. 


236  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

SPELLING 

1 

This  exercise  calls  attention  to  pairs  of  words  which  are 
seldom  misspelled,  but  are  often  confused. 

admittance,  admission  A  sign  over  a  door  reading  No 
Admittance  means  that  you  are  not  permitted  to  enter.  It 
is  the  equivalent  of  the  less  polite  Keep  Out.  A  sign  reading 
No  Admission  means  Admission  Free.  You  do  not  have  to 
pay  to  go  in.  Perhaps  the  best  way  to  fix  the  distinction  in 
mind  will  be  to  look  intently  at  the  following: 


POSITIVELY 
NO    ADMITTANCE 


CONCERT  THIS  EVENING  AT  EIGHT 
ADMISSION    FREE 


accept,  except  Accept  is  a  verb.  To  accept  anything  is  to 
take  it  when  it  is  offered.  We  accept  a  gift  or  an  apology. 
Except  may  be  used  as  a  conjunction,  or  as  a  preposition, 
or  as  a  verb.  It  is  misused  only  when  serving  as  a  verb. 
The  verb  except,  meaning  to  leave  out,  is  correctly  used  in 
the  following  sentence:  We  thought  every  one  was  invited, 
but  we  found  that  little  Jean  and  Mary  were  excepted.  It 
would  be  a  blunder  indeed  to  write  Please  except  my  apology. 
The  word  exception  is  never  misused;  think  of  it  when  try- 
ing to  determine  whether  accept  or  except  is  the  right  word  to 
employ  in  a  given  case. 

respectfully,  respectively  You  understand  the  common 
word  respect.  Respectful  is  an  adjective  made  from  respect, 
and  respectfully  an  adverb  made  by  adding  ly  to  the  ad- 
jective. At  the  close  of  a  letter  we  write,  correctly.  Yours 
respectfully.  Respectively  is  quite  a  different  word.  It 
means  singly  in  the  order  designated.  It  has  this  meaning 
in  the  following  sentence:    The  ages  of  Phoebe,  Polly,  and 


DRILL  EXERCISES  237 

Anne  are  niney  eleven,  and  thirteen  respectively.  That  is, 
Phoebe  is  nine,  Polly  is  eleven,  and  Anne  thirteen.  Yours 
respectively y  then,  does  not  make  sense. 

formally,  formerly  Look  at  the  two  words  with  the  suffix 
removed — formal y  former.  Think  of  formal  invitations, 
formal  dress,  formality.  In  each  of  these  is  the  idea  of 
proper  manner,  politeness,  doing  things  according  to  form. 
Former  has  to  do  with  time,  or  order  of  sequence.  Thus  we 
say  On  a  former  occasion  he  talked  about  Italian  lakes.  We 
mean  that  he  talked  about  Italian  lakes  on  a  previous  oc- 
casion. In  a  similar  manner  we  say  Formerly  he  worked  for 
Sage  &  Allen.  You  would  never  think  of  writing  formerlity 
for  formality;  then  why  is  it  that  sometimes  you  substitute 
formally  for  formerly?  Perhaps  you  do  not,  but  many 
others  do. 

affect,  effect  These  two  words  are  truly  difficult  to  master. 
Remember  first  of  all  —  if  you  can  —  that  affect  is  never  a 
noun.  We  write,  correctly,  What  was  the  effect?  We  write, 
incorrectly.  What  was  the  affect?  Then  try  to  remember 
that  though  the  verb  affect  has  five  or  six  meanings,  the 
verb  effect  has  but  one  —  to  accomplish.  Heat  affects  (acts 
upon)  metals.  A  reader  may  be  affected  (moved  emotion- 
ally) by  a  pathetic  tale.  The  doctor  effects  (accomplishes) 
a  cure. 

capital,  Capitol.  These  words  should  cause  little  trouble, 
for  though  capital  has  many  meanings,  Capitol  has  but  one. 
It  is  the  name  of  the  building  occupied  by  Congress  in 
Washington,  or  the  building  occupied  by  a  State  legislature. 
Thus  a  Capitol  always  is  a  house.  Capitol  has  an  o  in  it; 
so  has  the  word  house.  Note  that  Capitol  always  begins 
with  a  capital. 

principal,  principle  A  principal  is  one  who  takes  a  lead- 
ing part.  The  man  who  directs  a  school  is  the  principal 
of  the  school.  Perhaps  you  can  remember  it  through  the 
slang  word  pal,  meaning  chum.     Should  you  like  to  have 


238 


JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 


your  principal  for  a  pal?  The  word  also  means  capital  as 
opposed  to  interest.  This  you  learned  in  your  study  of 
arithmetic.  The  word  principle  has  many  meanings.  It  is 
never  used  as  an  adjective.  It  means  a  truth  or  rule.  In 
the  plural  it  has  the  idea  of  good  character.  A  school 
principal  should  have  good  principles.  He  should  try  to 
live  up  to  the  principle  that  all  children  should  have  the 
same  educational  advantages. 

Play  Uacher.  Prepare  to  dictate  to  the  class  sentences  con- 
taining the  words  explained  in  this  exercise^  and  to  correct 
such  of  tJie  sentences  as  your  classmates  may  write  incorrectly. 


Look  up  the  meanings  of  the  following  words  and  try  in  some 
way  to  fix  them  in  your  mind.  Prepare  to  dictate  to  the  class 
sentences  containing  the  words  correctly  used. 


statue 
pillar 
lightning 
allude 


statute 
pillow 
lightening 
elude 


partition 
liniment 
deceased 
hair 


petition 
lineament 
diseased 
heir 


PUNCTUATION 

Rule.  —  The  parenthesis  is  used  (a)  to  enclose  figures  or 
letters  employed  to  mark  divisions,  {h)  to  enclose  matter  which 
does  not  belong  strictly  to  the  sentence  in  which  it  occurs. 

The  first  of  these  two  uses  is  illustrated  in  the  statement  of 
the  rule.     The  second  is  illustrated  in  the  following  sentence : 

The  best  night's  rest  I  ever  had  was  once  when  a  cocker  spaniel 
puppy,  who  had  just  recovered  from  stomach  ache  (dose  from 
one  to  two  so<Ia-mints) ,  and  was  a  Httle  frightene<l  by  the 
strange  experience,  curled  up  on  my  shoulder  Hke  a  fur  tippet, 
gently  poked  his  cold,  soft  nose  into  my  neck,  and  there  slept 
sweetly  and  somidly  until  morning. 


DRILL  EXERCISES  239 

Rule.  —  The  dash  is  used  to  indicate  a  sudden  change  in 
sense  or  grammatical  construction,  or  to  indicate  incompleteness. 

New  York,  Chicago,  New  Orleans  —  all  of  these  cities  have  I 

seen. 
*'I  —  I  —  "  Joe  began,  looking  rather  guilty. 

In  the  first  example  above,  we  naturally  expect  to  see  the 
proper  nouns  followed  by  a  predicate;  but  there  is  an  abrupt 
change,  a  new  subject  being  introduced.  The  change  is  an- 
nounced by  the  dash.  In  the  second  example  a  sentence 
begun  falteringly  is  left  incomplete. 

Rule.  —  Dashes  in   pairs  are  sometimes  used   like  marks 
of  parenthesis. 

As  soon  as  they  were  partially  filled  up  —  they  ate  till  they 
dared  not  ask  for  more  —  the  scouts  went  back  to  the  hotel, 
with  two  borrowed  wheelbarrows,  and  got  their  trunks  and 
luggage. 


Explain  the  punctuation  in  the  following  sentences. 

1.  Perhaps  we  should  explain  that  the  Scotch  word  caddy 
(derived  from  the  French  word  cadets  meaning  a  younger 
brother)  is  applied  to  one  who  carries  the  clubs  of  a  person 
playing  at  golf.  2.  A  United  States  destroyer  —  the  579, 
we  call  her  —  slipped  out  to  sea  a  day  or  two  ago.  3.  When 
striking  a  match  on  a  box  held  in  the  hand,  be  sure  the  box 
is  closed  (to  avoid  setting  fire  to  the  matches  remaining  in  the 
box),  and  push  the  match  away  from  you.  4.  Brave  as  he  is 
—  and  few  are  braver  —  he  will  vent  his  passion  by  a  secret 
stab  rather  than  by  an  open  blow.  5.  The  study  of  English 
in  school  has  two  main  objects,  which  should  be  considered  of 
equal  importance:  (1)  command  of  correct  and  clear  English, 
spoken  and  written;  (2)  ability  to  read  with  accuracy,  intelli- 
gence, and  appreciation,  and  the  development  of  the  habit  of 
reading  good  literature  with  enjoyment.  6.  "Anybody,'* 
writes   Stevenson,   **can   write  a  short  story  —  a   bad   one,   I 


240  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

mean  —  who  has  industry  and  paper  and  time  enough;  but 
not  every  one  may  hope  to  write  even  a  bad  novel."  7.  In  a 
letter  from  Lewis  Carroll  to  Agnes  Hughes  occurs  the  following 
sentence:  "You  know  I  have  three  dinner  bells.  The  first 
(which  is  the  largest)  is  rung  when  dinner  is  nearly  ready; 
the  second  (which  is  rather  larger)  is  rung  when  it  is  quite 
ready;  and  the  third  (which  is  as  large  as  the  other  two  put 
together)  is  rung  all  the  time  I  am  at  dinner."  8.  "You  can 
get  off,"  said  Joe,  "and  after  supper  I'll  go  get  Ranger  to  come 
and  tell  Mr.  —  Mr. — "  "Kent  is  my  name,"  the  little  man 
said.  "At  home  I'm  Dr.  Kent,  but  out  here  I  wish  to  forget  it.'* 
9.  Have  you  ever  tried  to  spin  an  egg  on  its  small  end?  I 
have  been  told  it  cannot  be  done  —  unless  the  egg  is  first 
boiled.  10.  So  the  boys  of  London  —  dear  old  London,  which 
on  this  Sunday  evening  will  be  in  its  best  clothes,  with  the 
church  bells  ringing  and  all  its  pretty  girls  in  the  parks,  where 
no  shell  fire  slashes  through  the  trees  —  were  in  the  thick  of  it. 

2 

By  way  of  testing  what  you  have  gained  through  study, 
punctuate  the  following  sentences  —  or  as  many  of  them  as  you 
think  require  punctuating;  for  a  few  will  be  found  which  are 
reasonably  clear  as  they  stand.  Supply  capitals  where  they 
are  needed. 

1.  The  day  was  Saturday  the  date  September  twelfth  and 
our  opponents  the  Red  Rovers  from  Torrington  Ohio. 

2.  I  drew  from  the  library  Barnaby  Rudge  that  being  the 
only  book  I  cared  to  read. 

3.  Foxgloves  white  spotted  and  pale  lilac  are  the  pride  of  the 
garden. 

4.  Why  some  people  are  left-handed  we  do  not  know. 
\    5.    Where  do  we  go  when  we  go  to  sleep  he  asked. 

6.  In  business  offices  where  the  dictagraph  is  used  there  is 
little  need  of  stenography. 

7.  There  was  a  sloping  lawn  a  fine  stream  at  the  foot  of  it 
and  a  tract  of  park  beyond. 

8.  When  in  trouble  rub  this  ring  it  has  magical  powers. 


DRILL  EXERCISES  241 

9.    Was  it  you  Bill  that  turned  off  the  oil  he  asked. 

10.  A  fly  settled  on  his  back  a  damp  sluggish  fly  that  had 
survived  the  winter  and  it  crawled  horribly  up  his  spine. 

11.  The  girls  having  sung  several  songs  thought  that  the 
boys  should  now  sing  to  them. 

12.  The  girls  having  sung  several  songs  the  boys  now  took 
their  turn. 

13.  At  that  instant  I  saw  a  ghost  or  what  appeared  to  be  a 
ghost  gliding  through  the  ruins. 

14.  His  life  during  the  thirty  years  that  followed  was  one 
long  struggle  with  poverty. 

15.  It  is  the  frost  that  kills  our  wild  creatures  and  not  the 
snow  which  protects  and  keeps  them  warm. 

16.  No  harm  was  intended  we  were  simply  thoughtless.    ^ 

17.  Squeeze  a  few  drops  of  lemon  juice  on  some  common 
cooking  soda  and  something  will  happen. 

18.  We  were  in  doubt  which  of  the  two  roads  to  take  one 
was  level  but  sandy  the  other  in  fine  condition  but  hilly. 

19.  The  following  morning  the  eight  forty-five  stopped  at 
Woodville  only  long  enough  to  take  on  one  passenger  the  man 
with  the  checked  suit  long  overcoat  and  felt  hat. 

20.  He  answered  nervously  glancing  this  way  and  that. 

21.  Well  never  mind  Mary  they  re  cheap. 

22.  The  window  displayed  many  playthings  such  as  wooden 
animals  clockwork  toys  and  building  blocks. 

23.  Many  playthings  such  as  wooden  animals  clockwork 
toys  and  building  blocks  were  displayed  in  the  window. 

24.  Convention  day  means  two  things  to  me  first  an  extra 
nap  in  the  morning  secondly  an  opportunity  to  practice  what 
I  have  learned  in  the  domestic  science  course. 

25.  The  room  was  paneled  with  cornices  of  heavy  carved 
work  in  which  flowers  and  grotesque  faces  were  strangely 
mingled  and  a  row  of  black-looking  portraits  stared  mournfully 
at  me  from  the  walls. 

26.  Twenty  minutes  on  the  treadmill  I  am  told  is  a  sort  of 
torture  but  to  a  youth  on  a  bicycle  the  labor  becomes  enjoyment. 


342  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

27.  On  scant  rations  besieged  on  every  side  having  no  hope 
of  succor  or  aid  the  garrison  has  fought  on  with  a  stubbornness 
that  has  evoked  the  admiration  of  the  world. 

28.  After  mail  matter  has  been  deposited  in  a  post-office 
it  shall  not  be  withdrawn  except  by  the  sender  or  in  case  of  a 
minor  child  by  the  parent  or  guardian  legally  authorized  to 
control  the  correspondence  of  the  writer. 

29.  At  present  I  am  in  the  convalescent  ward  recovering 
from  a  slight  accident  wherein  the  motor-cycle  the  silly  beast 
shied  at  a  dog  and  ran  off  the  road  while  I  was  jogging  quietly 
along  at  sixty-four  miles  an  hour. 

30.  I  do  solemnly  swear  that  I  will  faithfully  execute  the 
office  of  President  of  the  United  States  and  will  to  the  best  of 
my  ability  preserve  protect  and  defend  the  Constitution  of 
the  United  States. 

31.  When  I  was  a  little  boy  I  used  to  get  a  great  deal  of  satis- 
faction out  of  stroking  a  kitten  or  puppy  or  crushing  a  lilac 
leaf-bud  for  its  spring  fragrance  or  smelling  newly  turned  soil 
or  tasting  the  sharp  acid  of  a  grape  tendril  or  feeling  the  green 
coolness  of  the  skin  of  a  frog. 

32.  If  some  wizard  should  upon  the  first  moment  of  an  in- 
coming year  banish  all  coal  from  the  world  instant  darkness 
would  settle  over  the  streets  in  most  of  the  worlds  great  cities 
and  their  inhabitants  would  rise  the  next  morning  to  find  their 
houses  cold  and  nearly  all  their  factory  wheels  motionless  the 
starvation  that  immediately  faced  them  would  kill  millions 
of  people  before  another  January  first  had  come. 

33.  There  were  bright  tongues  of  fiery  cloud  burning  and 
quivering  about  them  and  the  river  brighter  than  all  fell  in  a 
wavering  column  of  pure  gold  from  precipice  to  precipice  with 
the  double  arch  of  a  broad  purple  rainbow  stretched  across  it 
flashing  and  fading  alternately  in  the  wreaths  of  spray. 

34.  Two  small  gray  eyes  twinkled  feebly  in  the  midst  like 
two  stars  of  lesser  magnitude  in  a  hazy  firmament  and  his  full- 
fed  cheeks  which  seemed  to  have  taken  toll  of  everything  that 
went  into  his  mouth  were  curiously  mottled  and  streaked  with 
dusky  red  like  a  Spitzenburg  apple. 


DRILL  EXERCISES  243 

35.  I  remember  confessed  the  dark-haired  lady  that  at  one 
time  my  greatest  desire  in  life  was  to  become  a  golden-haired 
blue-eyed  individual  very  beautiful  and  at  the  suggestion  of 
some  grown-up  I  drank  quantities  of  milk  which  I  detested  for 
several  weeks  to  bring  about  the  desired  transformation  but 
the  process  was  so  extremely  slow  and  unpleasant  that  I  finally 
abandoned  it  in  disgust. 

36.  Soon  after  the  invention  of  railways  a  countryman  from 
a  distant  part  of  England  made  an  expedition  to  the  nearest 
railroad  station  as  he  greatly  desired  a  sight  of  that  strange 
new  monster  a  train  now  it  happened  that  a  tunnel  ran  through 
the  hill  near  the  town  and  emerged  about  twenty  yards  from 
the  station  when  the  countryman  returned  to  his  home  in  the 
evening  his  wife  greeted  him  with  well  John  did  you  see  the 
train  yes  wife  I  saw  the  train  sure  enough  it  stood  in  the  station 
as  I  came  up  and  with  its  monstrous  body  and  huge  black  throat 
it  scared  me  at  first  but  for  all  its  great  size  it  proved  itself  to  be 
a  coward  how  so  exclaimed  his  wife  greatly  surprised  I  speak 
truly  returned  her  husband  as  I  cautiously  approached  the 
monster  he  espied  me  on  a  sudden  instantly  with  a  loud  shriek 
he  rushed  into  his  hole  and  I  saw  him  no  more. 


COURSE  VIII 

COMPOSITION 

Convincing  Others 

Simple  exercises  in  argumentation 
Informal  discussion  and  debate 

DRILL 

Spelling 

Difficult  words 

Sentence  Revision 

Substitution  of  elements  nearly  equivalent 

Avoiding  unpleasant  repetition 

Removing  unnecessary  words 

Changing  from  compound  to  simple  or  complex 


CONVINCING  OTHERS 

This  Course,  like  the  preceding,  has  to  do  with  trails.  The 
exercises  invite  you  to  think  out  the  best  routes  along 
which  to  lead  the  way  when  trying  to  induce  others  to  accept 
your  conclusions.  It  is  not  an  echo  of  the  preceding  Course, 
however.  Making  up  one's  mind,  difficult  as  it  sometimes 
is,  commonly  proves  much  simpler  than  convincing  one's 
neighbor;  for,  because  no  two  minds  are  alike,  no  two  dis- 
positions alike,  we  cannot  always  lead  others  to  just  con- 
clusions by  precisely  the  routes  we  have  followed  in  making 
up  our  own  minds.  The  path  must  be  suited  to  those  who 
are  to  take  it. 

EXERCISE  1 

What  do  you  want  most  at  the  present  moment  .^^  Is  it 
anything  that  can  be  gained  through  petition  backed  by 
argument?     Is  it  anything  suggested  by  the  following  list? 

1.  Permission  from  father  or  mother  to  purchase  something 
—  a  dress,  a  dog,  an  aquarium,  a  bicycle;  permission  to  accept 
an  invitation,  or  to  invite  friends  to  a  party;  permission  to 
accept  a  position  as  clerk;  permission  to  go  to  a  certain  school 
or  college. 

2.  Permission  from  a  teacher  or  a  principal  to  change  your 
course  of  study;  permission  to  be  absent  from  school  for  a  day; 
permission  to  celebrate  a  certain  event  by  means  of  a  school 
holiday. 

3.  Pardon  for  an  offense  committed  and  full  remission  of  a 
penalty  imposed. 

4.  Permission  from  a  public-spirited  man  of  wealth  to  use 
one  of  his  fields,  either  for  school  games  or  for  a  garden. 

247 


248  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

5.  Permission,  from  the  school  principal,  to  organize  a  club. 

6.  Acceptance  of  a  plan  by  which,  once  a  fortnight,  the 
teacher  shall  read  to  the  class  from  some  good  book  oi:  magazine 
instead  of  holding  the  regular  recitation. 

Write  a  letter  containing  a  petition  backed  by  argument. 
Let  it  be  a  real  case  if  possible  —  a  real  want,  a  real  person  ad- 
dressed, and  arguments  that  you  would  actually  be  willing  to 
use. 

Here  are  hints:  1.  Don't  "beat  about  the  bush."  Don't 
"camouflage."  Out  with  your  petition  at  once.  2.  Full 
explanation,  telling  all  about  it,  is  often  the  quickest,  surest 
way  of  winning  what  one  is  after.  But  waste  no  words. 
3.  The  manner  in  which  one  asks  for  a  thing  is  often  an  argu- 
ment in  itself.  Be  polite.  Politeness  includes  attention 
to  penmanship,  spelling,  punctuation.  If  you  were  calling 
on  a  lady  for  the  purpose  of  getting  her  to  give  money  for 
a  cause  in  which  you  are  interested,  would  you  think  of 
entering  her  parlor  with  your  shoes  muddy?  An  unsightly 
blot  in  a  letter  is  a  pair  of  muddy  shoes  in  a  lady's  parlor. 

When  the  petitions  have  been  handed  in,  it  will  be  well 
to  single  out  one  or  two  for  courteous  criticism.  Many 
heads  are  better  than  one.  Such  friendly  criticism  may 
bring  forth  precisely  the  counsel  some  one  needs  to  prevent 
him  from  blundering  through  life,  seldom  getting  what  he 
asks  for,  because  of  some  unfortunate  way  of  presenting  his 
petitions. 

EXERCISE  2 

What  views  do  you  hold  concerning  the  assertions  made 
below?  Do  you  accept  them  all  as  true?  Is  there  not  some 
one  assertion  that  you  would  like  to  discuss? 

1.  Youths  under  fifteen  should  not  be  permitted  to  use  the 

telephone. 

2.  The  age  limit  for  holders  of  the  state  license  to  drive  auto- 

mobiles should  be  reduced  to  fourteen  years. 


CONVINCING  OTHERS  249 

S.    Pupils  using  the  street  cars  in  going  to  and  from  school 
should  be  much  more  careful  of  their  manners. 

4,  Every  pupil  physically  able  to  do  so  should  take  an  active 

part  in  school  athletics. 

5.  No  boy,  unless  physically  unfit,  should  be  given  a  school 

diploma  till  he  has  learned  to  swim. 

Defend  or  attack  one  of  the  above  assertions^  imagining  that 
you  are  addressing  the  ones  principally  concerned.  For  ex- 
ample, if  you  are  attacking  the  first  assertion,  imagine  that  you 
are  talking  to  officers  of  the  telephone  company. 

Here  are  suggestions:  First,  try  to  get  the  viewpoint  of 
those  whom  you  are  opposing.  Put  yourself  in  their  place, 
reasoning  out  with  yourself  why  they  think  as  they  do. 
Nothing  will  be  gained  by  scolding  or  ridiculing;  it  is  your 
desire  not  to  anger  others,  but  to  change  their  way  of  think- 
ing. Look  at  the  problem  first  through  their  eyes.  Second, 
remember  that  bare  argument  is  not  always  eifective.  Have 
you  never  been  present  at  a  meeting  when  the  audience, 
restless,  inattentive,  has  suddenly  become  breathlessly 
quiet,  everybody  leaning  forward  anxious  to  lose  nothing 
that  the  speaker  may  say?  What  caused  the  marvelous 
change?  A  very  simple  thing.  To  illustrate  a  point  or  to 
enforce  an  argument  the  speaker  had  begun  to  tell  a  story, 
perhaps  a  personal  experience,  or  possibly  it  was  not  a  story 
but  a  picture  that  he  had  commenced  to  sketch.  Many  an 
argument,  after  battering  long  and  in  vain  for  admittance, 
finds  easy  entrance,  a  welcomed  guest,  by  simply  taking  the 
guise  of  a  story  or  a  picture. 

EXERCISE  3 

It  is  a  fine  thing  to  champion  a  friend,  backing  him  in 
any  good  cause.  This  exercise  asks  you  to  back  a  friend  by 
means  of  argument  earnestly  presented. 

Perform  any  one  of  the  following  tasks,  keeping  strictly  in 
mind  the  goal  for  which  you  are  striving.     Make  the  exercise  as 


250  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

practical  as  you  can.  Champion  not  an  imaginary  person 
but  one  whom  you  actually  know.  Do  not  write  to  people  in 
general  hut  to  those  whom  you  knoWy  for  example  your  school- 
mates. Recommend  for  a  real  honor  or  undertaking y  if  you 
can.    Let  your  arguments  he  real  arguments,  not  fanciful  ones. 

1.    Write  a  paragraph  or  two  in  which  you  offer  reasons  why 
should  be  invited  to  join  the  .      (Fill  in   the 


first  blank  with  the  name  of  a  friend.     Fill  in  the  second  blank 
with  the  name  of  some  club  or  association.) 

2.  Write  a  paragraph  or  two  strongly  recommending  some 
one  for  a  position  in  a  store  or  an  office,  or  for  service  of  some 
other  kind. 

3.  Write   a   paragraph    or   two   giving    definite   reasons   for 

thinking  that should  be  elected  president  of  the  class, 

made  captain  of  the  school  ball  team,  or  chosen  for  some  other 
office  where  good  leadership  is  required. 

Remember  that  such  a  general  statement  as  He  would 
make  a  good  leader  hecause  he  is  such  a  fine  fellow  is  not  very 
effective.  Precisely  what  is  so  fine  about  him,  and  in  what 
ways  do  these  qualities  fit  him  for  leadership? 

EXERCISE  4 

What  have  you  for  sale?  Is  it  a  ticket  to  a  concert  or 
a  game,  or  a  subscription  to  a  magazine,  or  a  sheet  of  Red 
Cross  seals?  Perhaps  you  would  like  to  sell  your  time 
and  services  for  Saturday  or  for  the  summer  vacation. 
Possibly  you  are  willing  to  part,  for  a  consideration,  with 
some  of  your  belongings;  or,  as  agent  for  another,  you  would 
like  to  dispose  of  houses,  ships,  merchandise. 

Make  up  your  mind  what  you  will  try  to  sell.  Pick  out  a 
customer,  not  an  imaginary  person  at  all,  hut  some  one  ichom 
you  know.  Report  in  writing  the  arguments  you  intend  to 
use  in  making  a  sale,  including  what  you  vnll  say  in  case  your 
customer  advances  reasons  why  he  does  not  wish  to  buy. 


CONVINCING  OTHERS  251 

But  first  let  there  be  informal  class  discussion  about  sales- 
manship. Have  you  ever  had  disagreeable  interviews  with 
agents  or  others  who  have  had  goods  to  sell?  Have  you 
ever  been  "  taken  in  "  by  misrepresentation?  How  do  you 
like  being  flattered  by  one  who  wants  your  money  or  your 
services?  Have  you  ever  been  wearied  by  five  arguments 
when  one,  driven  home,  would  have  been  sufiicient?  Ad- 
vertisements are  usually  a  form  of  argument;  what  have 
you  found  in  them  to  like  and  what  to  disapprove?  Give 
freely  your  views  on  salesmanship.  If  possible,  tell  of  some 
Httle  experience  you  have  had  and  what  it  taught  you.        *1 

When  the  reports  have  been  handed  in,  they  should  be 
discussed  freely.  What  weak,  harmful  arguments  do  you 
discover?  Who,  in  his  attempts  to  make  a  sale,  has  done 
something  which  you  cannot  approve?  Who,  in  a  proper 
way,  has  fitted  his  argument  shrewdly  to  the  disposition 
of  the  customer?  Who  shows  promise  of  making  a  good 
salesman? 

EXERCISE  6 

Occasionally  there  appears  in  some  newspaper  or  magazine 
a  full  page  advertisement  of  a  city  or  town  which  is  striving 
to  grow  and  is  endeavoring  to  attract  people  by  setting  forth 
its  advantages.  As  we  motor  through  the  country,  we 
sometimes  find  on  the  outskirts  of  a  town  a  billboard  serving 
the  same  purpose.  A  few  sentences,  quickly  read,  give 
clear-cut  reasons  why  the  place  should  prove  attractive 
to  manufacturers,  to  summer  tourists,  or  to  some  other 
class. 

Write  such  an  advertisement  setting  forth,  in  not  more  than 
200  wordsy  the  most  attractive  features  of  some  town  (not  neces- 
sarily the  one  in  which  you  live),  or  some  residential  section,  or 
some  store.     Use  none  but  complete  sentences. 

This  task,  like  nearly  every  other  in  this  chapter,  calls 
for  imagination.     You  must  put  yourself  in  the  place  of 


252  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

those  who  are  to  read  your  advertisement.  How  will  they 
be  affected  by  it?  The  task  calls  also  for  conciseness. 
Waste  no  words. 

EXERCISE  6 

While  motoring  through  the  country,  a  lady,  evidently 
rich,  saw  at  the  home  of  Mrs.  Brown  a  blue  platter.  Be- 
lieving it  to  be  an  antique,  she  offered  five  dollars  for  it, 
and  this  offer  was  promptly  accepted  by  Mrs.  Brown,  al- 
though she  knew  the  platter  was  not  an  antique  but  an 
imitation.  She  had  paid  twenty -five  cents  for  it  at  the 
store  and  could  get  another  at  the  same  price;  but  she  made 
no  mention  of  this.  Here  is  what  Mrs.  Brown  may  have 
said  in  defense  of  her  action : 

1.  The  lady  set  her  own  price;  I  simply  accepted  what  she 
offered.  2.  Probably  she  thought  it  was  a  great  bargain,  worth 
at  least  ten  dollars.  I  beat  her  at  her  own  game.  3.  The  platter, 
for  actual  use,  is  as  serviceable  as  one  a  thousand  years  old. 
4.  She  is  rich.  What  is  five  dollars  to  her!  5.  Mrs.  Jones  and 
Mrs.  Clark,  indeed  ever  so  many  of  the  farmers'  wives  here- 
abouts, have  platters  just  like  it.  The  rich  lady  would  have 
seen  one  somewhere  and  bought  it.  I  might  as  well  have  the 
five  dollars  as  any  one  else.  6.  A  person  lias  a  right  to  get  what 
he  can  for  an  article.  7.  It  was  but  five  dollars,  anyway. 
8.  I  shall  use  the  money  for  some  good  purpose  —  give  it  to 
the  Red  Cross,  perhaps.  9.  I  might  have  asked  ten  dollars; 
the  lady  would  have  paid  it.  10.  If  you  had  had  the  chance, 
you  would  have  done  the  same  thing. 

Pretending  that  your  instructor  is  Mrs.  Brrnvn^  try  to  per- 
suade Mrs.  Brown  that  her  reasoning  is  not  sound,  fitting  your 
arguments  to  the  kind  of  person  she  has  shoirn  herself  to  be. 

EXERCISE   7 

Possibly  you  have  in  mind  a  problem  of  right  and  wrong 
like  the  one  presented  in  the  preceding  exercise,  perhaps  one 


CONVINCING  OTHERS  253 

that  has  troubled  you  because  it  concerns  you,  or  it  may  be 
simply  a  problem  that  has  been  brought  to  your  attention 
by  some  one  else.  No  better  practice  in  argument  could  be 
invented  than  that  which  might  result  if  you  should  present 
the  problem  to  the  class  for  solution,  listen  while  various 
opinions  are  being  expressed,  then  act  as  judge,  reviewing 
the  arguments  as  you  were  asked  to  review  Mrs.  Brown's 
and  giving  your  opinion. 

Bring  to  class  a  problem  like  the  blue  platter  one^  and  serve 
as  judge  while  it  is  being  discussed.  Or,  if  you  cannot  think 
of  an  appropriate  problemy  make  up  your  mind  whether,  in 
the  following  case,  the  merchant  acted  honorably ,  and  be  pre- 
pared to  defend  your  views,  talking  directly^  to  your  instructor 
as  if  he  were  the  merchant. 

Finding  that  a  certain  line  of  dress  goods  was  not  selling, 
a  merchant  gave  the  goods  a  prominent  place  in  his  show  window 
and  displayed  a  placard  reading,  "Marked  down  from  eighty 
cents  to  sixty."  This  brought  few  sales.  Perhaps  customers 
reasoned  that,  though  cheap  at  sixty  cents,  the  patterns  could 
not  be  popular,  or  they  would  not  have  been  marked  down. 
They  did  not  care  to  purchase  what  was  not  in  style.  Then 
the  merchant  had  the  goods  cut  into  odd  lengths,  arranged 
them  on  a  bargain  counter,  and  displayed  a  placard  reading, 
*' Remnants,  only  eighty  cents  a  yard  while  they  last."  The 
goods  sold  rapidly.  Perhaps  the  customers  reasoned,  "Since 
these  are  remnants,  they  must  be  patterns  that  are  selling  well. 
Remnants  are  always  sold  at  a  greatly  reduced  price.  Here  is 
a  chance  to  get  really  fashionable  material  for  a  gown  at,  pos- 
sibly, half  what  it  would  have  cost  two  weeks  ago." 

EXERCISE  8 

A  question  to  be  debated,  when  put  in  the  form  of  a  com- 
plete sentence,  is  called  a  proposition.  If  challenged  to 
debate  the  proposition  The  poor  are  better  off  than  the  rich, 
what  are  some  of  the  questions  you  would  ask  before  the 
contest   began?     The   first   three,   undoubtedly,   would   be 


254  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

these:  What  is  to  be  understood  by  the  term  the  poor? 
How  much  wealth  must  one  have  before  he  can  be  classed 
with  the  rich?  What  is  meant  by  better  off?  Until  these 
points  are  settled,  there  can  be  no  fair  contest.  Without 
an  understanding  concerning  them,  the  debate  would  be  as 
useless  as  an  athletic  contest  in  which  part  of  the  players 
think  the  game  is  football  and  the  rest  think  it  is  tennis. 
Disputes,  the  world  over,  are  commonly  due  less  to  real 
difference  of  opinion  than  to  carelessly  worded  and  care- 
lessly interpreted  statements. 

Point  out  the  words  in  the  following  propositions  which  are 
too  indefinite^  and  show  in  each  case  what  misunderstanding 
might  arise  because  of  the  indefiniteness. 

1.  Sunday  recreations  should  be  prohibited.  2.  Girls 
should  take  manual  training.  3.  Cheap  books  ought  not  to 
be  circulated  by  public  libraries.  4.  It  is  wrong  to  hunt  and 
fish.  5.  Polar  expeditions  do  not  pay.  6.  Too  many  hours 
a  day  should  not  be  devoted  to  exercise.  7.  Everybody  should 
attend  church.  8.  City  stores  should  close  half  a  day  a  week 
during  warm  weather.  9.  Cheap  literature  does  more  harm 
than  cheap  dramatic  performances.  10.  The  school  year  should 
be- shortened. 


EXERCISE  9 

A  topic  having  been  chosen  by  vote  from  the  following  list 
and  a  day  given  for  thinking  the  topic  through,  an  informal  dis- 
cussion will  be  held  in  which  every  one  will  be  expected  to  say 
at  least  a  few  words  and  no  one  will  be  permitted  to  speak  more 
than  twice, 

1.  A  month  should  be  added  to  the  school  year.  2.  Each 
English  recitation  should  begin  with  a  three-minute  talk  by 
some  member  of  the  class.  3.  There  should  be  a  school  debating 
club.    4.    The  principal   of  a  private   school   for   the   sons   of 


CONVINCING  OTHERS  ^55 

wealthy  gentlemen  did  a  wise  thing  when  he  announced  in 
June  that  no  boy  would  be  permitted  to  return  in  the  fall  who 
had  not  spent  at  least  three  weeks  of  his  summer  in  some  form 
of  useful  labor,  sickness  alone  to  be  accepted  as  an  excuse. 
5.  Credit  toward  graduation  should  be  given  all  who  do  espe- 
cially well  in  school  athletics.  6.  It  is  useless  to  buy  books  if 
one  lives  near  a  good  library.  7.  Owners  of  cats  should  be 
required  to  pay  a  license  fee  equal  to  that  which  is  paid  by 
owners  of  dogs.  8.  All  merchants  should  charge  a  fee  for 
delivering  parcels  to  purchasers.  9.  The  recess  period  should 
be  ten  minutes  longer. 

Here  is  a  single  suggestion:  It  is  quite  human,  but  not  at 
all  broad-minded,  for  one  to  decide  a  question  quickly  in 
whatever  way  seems  most  agreeable  so  far  as  he  alone  is 
concerned  and  proceed  to  manufacture  arguments  to  sup- 
port his  decision,  forgetting  that  his  decision  should  be  fair 
to  all.  It  is  just  as  human,  but  not  at  all  broad-minded,  to 
think  of  immediate  advantages  and  forget  about  the  future. 
Learn  to  think  in  a  big  way. 


EXERCISE  10 

The  instructor  will  announce  a  proposition,  perhaps  select- 
ing from  the  list  found  below.  The  following  day  the  pupils 
will  come  prepared  to  give  arguments  for  and  against  it.  These 
arguments  will  be  recorded  on  the  blackboard  in  parallel  col- 
umns.  Whenever  an  argument  has  been  fairly  refuted  —  that 
isy  shown  to  be  false  —  a  line  will  be  drawn  through  it.  At 
the  close  of  the  hour,  if  the  matter  is  not  already  evident,  a  vote 
will  be  taken  to  determine  on  which  side  the  weight  of  evidence 
lies. 

1.  The  girls  should  have  an  athletic  association  of  their 
own.  2.  Pupils  ought  not  to  try  to  earn  money  while  attend- 
ing school,  unless  compelled  by  necessity  to  do  so.  3.  Badges 
of  honor  should  be  given  for  excellence  in  scholarship,  just  as 
now   they  are  given   for   success   in   athletics.     4.    Every    girl 


256  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

should  make  her  own  graduation  dress.  5.  Every  boy  should 
earn  money  to  pay  for  his  graduation  suit.  6.  A  person  should 
never  tell  what  has  been  told  him  as  a  secret.  7.  Boys  and  girls 
who  receive  a  weekly  allowance  for  spending-money  should  be 
permitted  to  use  this  money  as  they  please.  8.  Credit  towards 
graduation  should  be  given  for  music  lessons  taken  out  of 
school  hours.  9.  West  Point  offers  better  opportunities  to 
the  average  boy  than  does  Annapolis.     10.    For  young  people 

of  high  school  age, is  a  better  magazine  than . 

11.    Of  the  newspapers  published  in  our  town,  the is  the 

best  for  the  average  reader. 


EXERCISE  11 

Before  advancing  against  the  enemy,  the  military  leader 
should  know  what  forces  are  at  his  command.  But  this  is 
not  all.  If  possible,  he  must  gain  definite  knowledge  con- 
cerning what  forces  the  enemy  will  array  against  him.  The 
one  matter  is  as  important  as  the  other.  Debate  is  a  form 
of  warfare;  indeed,  the  word  debate  comes  from  a  Latin 
word  meaning  to  strike  down.  It  is  as  important  that  the 
debater  think  out  what  arguments  may  be  brought  against 
him  as  it  is  that  he  know  all  the  strong  arguments  in  his 
favor. 

Select  a  proposition  from  the  list  given  below.  Find  three 
good  arguments  in  support  of  it  and  three  against  it.  Express 
each  argument  in  the  form  of  a  complete  sentence.  Arrange 
them  in  the  order  of  their  importance,  placing  the  strongest 
last. 

1.  Two  half-holidays  a  week   would    be    better  for  public 

schools  than  one  whole  holiday. 

2.  Two  sessions,  one  in  the  morning  and  the  other  in  the 

afternoon,  would  be  better  for  our  school  than  a  single 
session. 

3.  Parties  for  school  children  should,  during  term-time,  always 

come  on  Friday  night. 


CONVINCING  OTHERS  257 

4.  Monday  would  make  a  better  school  holiday  than  Satur- 

day. 

5.  The  use  of  firearms  should  be  taught  in  all  public  high 

schools. 

6.  The  school  should  own  a  moving  picture  outfit. 

7.  All  cats  should  be  exterminated. 

8.  When  street  cars  are  crowded,  able-bodied  men  and  boys 

should  offer  their  seats  to  ladies  who  are  standing. 

9.  Electricity  is  better  than  gas  for  illuminating  purposes. 

EXERCISE  12 

An  argument  merely  stated  in  a  sentence  or  two  may  make 
little  impression.     It  needs  to  be  driven  home. 

Take  one  of  the  arguments  you  advanced  in  a  preceding 
exercise  and,  using  it  as  the  first  sentence  in  a  paragraph,  com- 
plete the  paragraph  by  adding  sentences  to  enforce  the  argument. 
Be  prepared  to  read  the  paragraph  to  the  class  and  accept 
criticism. 

EXERCISE  13 

Take  an  argument  advanced  by  some  one  for  or  against  a 
proposition  in  Exercise  9  and,  in  a  single  carefully  prepared 
paragraph,  try  to  show  that  it  is  weak  or  entirely  worthless. 
Be  prepared  to  meet  the  defense  of  the  one  who  advanced  the 
argument. 

EXERCISE  14 

Let  the  instructor  appoint  some  one  to  prepare  a  six-minute 
defense  of  a  proposition  which  the  class  has  selected.  Two  or 
three  days  having  been  given  in  which  to  prepare,  the  one  ap- 
pointed will  defend  the  proposition.  The  remaining  members 
will  try  to  overthrow  his  arguments.  At  the  close  of  the  debate, 
the  first  speaker  will  be  given  three  minutes  in  which  to  reply 
to  his  opponents  and  sum  up  his  own  arguments.  The  con- 
test will  be  decided  by  the  instructor  and  two  other  judges 
chosen  by  the  class. 


258  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

EXERCISE   16 

Let  the  class  select  a  proposition  and  discuss  cooperatively 
what  would  be  the  best  way  to  defend  it,  entering  into  the  task 
with  as  much  earnestness  as  if  they  were  preparing  to  meet  a 
debating  club  from  another  school. 

EXERCISE  16 

The  class  nominates  two  leaders.  These  leaders,  taking 
turns,  *' choose  sides, ^*  dividing  the  class  into  two  groups,  as 
in  a  spelling  match.  Each  group  now  appoints  two  represen- 
tatives to  debate  on  a  topix;  to  be  chosen  by  the  four  thus  ap- 
pointed. A  week  is  allowed  in  which  to  prepare.  Those  not 
chosen  have  the  privilege  of  volunteering.  Each  of  the  four 
principal  debaters  is  allowed  five  minutes.  The  two  leaders 
are  allowed  three  minutes  more  at  the  close  of  the  debate  in  which 
to  answer  arguments  advanced  by  their  opponents  and  to  sum 
up  their  own  arguments. 


DRILL  EXERCISES 

SPELLING 


Many  words  that  are  commonly  misspelled  are  surpris- 
ingly simple  when  they  are  examined  closely,  a  part  at  a 
time.  Let  us  make  a  study  of  twenty  such,  merely  by  way 
of  forming  a  good  habit. 

laboratory  The  substantial  part  of  this  word  is  the  familiar 
term  labor.  The  rest  is  but  the  ending  atory,  found  in  re- 
formatory, observatory,  and  many  other  words.  How  simple 
it  seems  when  the  essential  part  is  italicized  thus:  labor- 
atory. 

extraordinarjr  This  is  but  the  combination  of  two  common 
words,  extra  and  ordinary,  neither  of  which  ever  causes 
trouble. 

agreeable  Agree  is  a  simple  word;  so  is  able.  Agreeable  is 
but  the  two  combined  without  change. 

physician  Physic  is  the  old  name  for  medicine.  To 
physic  the  ending  ian  is  added  just  as  we  add  it  to  music, 
optic,  and  politic  to  form  musician,  optician,  and  politician. 
Look  at  the  word  with  the  essential  part  italicized: 
physicisLii. 

medicinal  You  can  spell  medicine,  can  you  not.?  You 
have  learned  to  recognize  the  suflBx  al.  Medicine  -{-  al  = 
medicinal,  the  final  silent  e  being  dropped  before  a 
vowel. 

invitation  The  base  of  this  word  is  invite,  which  you  never 
misspell;    ation  is  a  common  ending.     Think  of  examina- 

259 


260  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

Hon,  determinationy  exclamation.  Invite  +  ation  =  invitation, 
the  final  silent  e  being  dropped  before  a  vowel. 

secretary  Secret  is  the  base  of  this  word.  Why  do  you 
ever  write  secratary?  A  secretary  is  supposed  to  keep 
secrets. 

handsome  What  could  be  simpler  than  this  two-word 
combination? 

plumber  Do  you  know  what  plumb  means?  Look  it 
up.  Then  you  will  never  misspell  the  word  again. 
Plums  are  a  fruit.  A  plumber  has  nothing  to  do  with  plum 
trees. 

familiar,  family  If  you  can  spell  one  of  these  simple 
words,  you  should  be  able  .to  spell  the  other,  for  famil  is  the 
root  in  each.  The  two  differ  only  in  their  suflSxes.  Famil- 
iar is  almost  never  misspelled,  but  family,  oddly  enough,  is 
an  old  offender. 

murmur  This  is  an  imitative  word  —  imitative  of  the 
sound  mur-mur-mur-mur-mur.  Note  that  the  two  syllables 
are  identical. 

criticism  Ism  is  a  common  suffix,  and  critic  is  a  simple 
word.     Just  join  the  two  without  change. 

nineteenth  Surely  you  are  familiar  with  the  ending 
teenth,  and  have  been  since  you  knew  how  to  count.  And 
nine  you  cannot  well  misspell.  When  the  two  are  joined, 
the  silent  e  is  not  dropped.     Why  should  it  be? 

ninety  Ty  is  a  common  suffix.  The  silent  e  is  not  dropped, 
for  it  comes  before  a  consonant. 

realize  This  is  simply  real,  which  you  never  misspell, 
plus  the  common  ending  ize. 

undoubtedly  Can  you  not  spell  doubted?  Then  place  un 
before  it  and  ly  after  it.    How  simple! 

narrative  Think  of  narrate,  which  you  never  spell  narrite. 
Narrate  +  ive  =  narrative,  the  silent  e  being  dropped  before 
a  vowel. 

unnecessary    Can  you  spell  necessary?    If  you  can,  it 


DRILL  EXERCISES 


261 


should  not  trouble  you  to  put  un  before  it,  as  you  do  in 
untie,  undo,  and  other  words. 
recollect    This  is  merely  collect  with  re  placed  before  it. 

Spell,  from  dictation,  the  twenty  words  in  this  exercise. 


Look  intently  at  each  of  the  following  words,  then  shut  your 
eyes  and  see  if  it  is  clearly  photographed  in  your  mind.  Pay 
particular  attention  to  the  vowels,  for  in  each  word  there  is  the 
possibility  of  substituting  a  wrong  vowel. 


similar 

salary 

separate 

privilege 

divide 

positive 

remedy 

humor 

particular 

comparative 

chocolate 

comedy 

feminine 

rumor 

vigor 

vegetable 

ceremony 

dispatch 

benefit 

medicine 

miracle 

competitor 

cemetery 

exterminate 

destroy 

despair 

anniversary 

despise 

3 

Here  is  a  group  of  words  troublesome  because  the  tempta- 
tion is  strong  not  to  double  a  consonant.     Look  at  them  intently. 


pinnacle 

embarrass 

parallel 

pennant 

tyranny 

gallant 

college 

millinery 

possessive 

syllable 

annual 

exaggerate 

office 

necessary 

attorney 

vaccinate 

centennial 

currency 

assail 

supply 

villain 

massacre 

effeminate 

assassin 

In  spelling  the  following  words,  the  temptation  is  strong  to 
double  a  consonant  which  should  remain  single. 


262 


JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 


reference 

literal 

Christmas 

alert 

abolish 

ability 

British 

control 

patrol 

fulfil 

apology 

imitate 

disaster 

deficit 

military 

soliloquy 

compel 

spoonful 

paralyze 

deference 

Here    are  fifty    test    words    selected   from    the    last    three 
exercises. 


similar 

college 

separate 

embarrass 

possessive 

benefit 

compel 

destroy 

imitate 

apology 

spoonful 

privilege 

British 

syllable 

parallel 

salary 

miracle 

positive 

necessary 

deficit 

control 

pennant 

supply 

ability 

annual 

villain 

paralyze 

office 

tyranny 

exaggerate 

military 

alert 

vaccinate 

effeminate 

dispatch 

particular 

divide 

remedy 

disaster 

literal 

vegetable 

abolish 

attorney 

chocolate 

humor 

Christmas 

ooh    closely 

at    the    suffix 

6 

xs.      Although 

the    words 

are 


grouped  suggestively,  each  word  must  he  mastered  separately; 
for  when  the  words  are  dictated  to  you,  the  grouping  will 
not  he  ohserved. 


classical 

participle 

eligible 

experience 

historical 

article 

visible 

abstinence 

municipal 

edible 

terrible 

independence 

manual 

forcible 

audible 

obedience 

hospital 

divisible 

admissible 

legislator 

identical 

sensible 

resistible 

ancestor 

spherical 

horrible 

existence 

aviator 

vertical 

chronicle 

reverence 

carburetor 

DRILL  EXERCISES  263 


SENTENCE  REVISION 


The  most  skilled  of  writers  occasionally  makes  a  poor 
sentence.  It  may  be  free  from  errors  in  spelling  and  gram- 
mar, and  satisfactory  in  nearly  every  other  particular,  yet 
some  little  thing  is  not  quite  as  it  should  be.  Perhaps  it 
contains  a  useless  word,  or  a  word  or  two  necessary  for  per- 
fect clearness  may  be  lacking.  It  may  contain  unpleasant 
repetitions  that  offend  the  ear.  A  modifier  may  have 
strayed  too  far  away  from  the  word  it  modifies,  or  a  phrase 
dangling  awkwardly  at  the  close  may  need  tucking  in. 
There  are  scores  of  sentence  maladies.  But  though  the 
skilled  writer  makes  a  slip  now  and  then,  his  eye  and  his 
ear  are  trained  to  detect  quickly  the  unsatisfactory  sentence; 
and  he  knows,  through  experience,  what  simple  remedies 
to  apply.  By  adding,  subtracting,  substituting,  and  by 
shifting  the  position  of  words,  he  remodels  whatever  is 
wrong  till  it  satisfies  his  ideas  of  good  workmanship. 

The  exercises  in  this  group  direct  attention  to  a  few 
sentence  imperfections;  but  their  main  purpose  is  to  pro- 
vide training  in  revision  and  to  impress  the  idea  that  often 
a  very  slight  change  is  all  that  is  necessary  to  transform  a 
bungling  sentence  into  a  really  good  one. 


It  matters  little  whether  one  writes  He  lives  in  the  house 
which  stands  on  the  corner.  He  lives  in  the  house  on  the  corner, 
or  He  lives  in  the  corner  house.  The  three  statements  are 
identical  in  meaning.  Yet  in  the  first  the  word  house  is 
modified  by  a  clause  of  five  words,  in  the  second  by  a  phrase 
of  three  words,  and  in  the  third  by  the  adjective  corner. 

Substitute,  in  the  following  sentences,  briefer  expressions  for 
the  italicized  phrases,  and  determine  in  each  case  whether  any- 
thing is  gained  by  the  change. 


264  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

1.  He  was  a  man  oj  courage.  2.  We  acted  vnth  deliberation. 
3.  The  house  of  Mr.  Jones  was  struck  by  lightning.  4.  In 
the  morning  the  air  is  sweet  and  pure.  5.  She  wore  a  gown 
of  light  blue  silk.  6.  The  wanderings  of  Ulysses  brought  many 
adventures.  7.  He  has  the  strength  of  an  ox.  8.  As  a  con- 
sequence,  we  were  obliged  to  remain.  9.  In  a  short  time  the 
sky  was  blue  again.  10.  Albert,  in  the  meantimcy  was  hurrying 
toward  town. 

2 

Substitute  phrases  for  the  words  italicized,  and  note  in  each 
case  whether  anything  is  gained. 

1.  The  boy's  mother  was  greatly  alarmed.  2.  The  mouth 
of  the  cave  was  funnel-shaped.  3.  Instantly  the  report  of  a 
rifle  was  heard.  4.  Please  go  home  immediately.  5.  Away 
she  sailed  on  golden  wings.  6.  The  wide-mouthed  gentleman 
gave  them  a  generous  smile.  7.  He  plays  more  sicillfully  than 
the  others.  8.  He  went  away  smiling.  9.  He  spoke  ner- 
vously. 

8 

Substitute  simpler  expressions  —  single  words  or  phrases  — 
for  the  words  italicized,  noting  in  each  case  whether  anything  is 
gained. 

1.  The  man  who  is  poor  may  not  be  to  blame  for  his  poverty. 
2.  While  this  was  going  on,  the  train  entered  a  tunnel.  3.  I 
made  up  my  mind  to  go.  4.  What  we  had  to  eat  was  well  cooked. 
5.  I  experienced  a  joy  that  cannot  be  described.  6.  A  boy  who 
seems  to  be  stupid  may  be  a  genius.  7.  Berries  that  grow  in  the 
fields  are  smaller  yet  sweeter  than  berries  that  grow  in  gardens. 
8.  I  think  I  know  what  he  intends  to  do.  9.  Will  those  who  are 
to  speak  please  come  to  the  platform?  10.  The  tramp  was 
given  two  slices  of  bread  vnth  a  layer  of  meat  between. 

4 

Rewrite,  avoiding  unpleasant  repetition. 

1.  At  first  it  only  sprinkled,  and  we  thought  it  was  only  a 
passing  shower.     2.    He  attended  school  at  the  Hillhouse  school. 


DRILL  EXERCISES  2Q5 

3.  After  my  long  tramp  I  felt  so  tired  that  I  retired  early. 

4.  It  was  not  just  to  give  all  the  reward  to  Henry  just  because 
he  arrived  first,  for  the  others  worked  just  as  hard.  5.  The 
cheering  from  the  other  side  soon  subsided.  6.  Now  he  has 
broken  off  a  little  branch  for  Mary,  and  off  they  scamper.  7.  The 
sun  grew  warmer  and  warmer,  but  the  man  did  not  take  off  his 
coat  but  6 wi toned  it  the  tighter.  8.  One  of  his  stories  that  in- 
terested me  greatly  was  one  that  told  how  he  nearly  lost  one  of 
his  dogs.  9.  He  was  so  weak  that  he  did  not  leave  his  bed 
for  a  week.  10.  In  a  modern  factory  everything  is  separated 
into  departments,  each  department  separate  from  the  others,  yet 
all  under  the  same  management. 


Rewrite,  avoiding  unpleasant  repetition. 

1.  One  by  one  the  girls  walked  away.     One  could  see  them 

strolling  about  the  grounds. 

2.  There  was  a  large  pond  there.     We  walked  round  the 

pond  and  up  the  hill  on  the  west  side  of  the  pond. 

3.  The   hou^e  where  I  was  staying   stood   quite  a  distance 

from  the  road.  The  house  was  quite  old  fashioned,  with 
long,  wide  verandas. 

4.  Pushing  other  things  aside,  I  came  to  an  old  chest  standing 

grim  and  silent,  and  thickly  covered  with  dust.  A 
moment's  thought  told  me  that  it  was  the  old  chest 
containing  the  toys  of  my  childhood  days. 

5.  After  walking  quite  a  distance,  we  found  a  grapevine  with 

quite  a  good  many  clusters  of  grapes  on  it.  After  we 
had  eaten  quite  a  few,  we  began  to  fill  our  pails  with  the 
grapes. 

6.  The  nobleman,  seeing  that  he  could  not  make  the  fisher- 

man change  his  price,  said,  *' Well,  I  must  have  the  fish." 
Then  he  called  a  servant  and  said,  "Give  this  man 
thirty  lashes,  but  lay  them  on  lightly."  When  the 
fifteenth  lash  had  been  given,  the  fisherman  said,  *'Stop! 
I  have  a  partner.  He  must  have  his  share."  The  noble- 
man then  said,  *'What!   are  there  two  such  madmen?" 


266  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 


Improve  each  of  the  following  sentences  by  removing  one  or 
more  unnecessary  words. 

1.  Add  together  the  three  numbers.  2.  Opposite  to  the 
window  was  a  mirror.  3.  Come  Tliursday  evening  at  8  p.m. 
4.  A  messenger  was  sent  to  Octavius  so  as  to  let  him  know  of 
Caesar's  death.  5.  The  ox  was  lame  and  so  he  was  turned  out 
to  pasture.  6.  He  had  nothing  to  look  forward  to  in  the  future. 
7.  This  soldier  whom  I  am  telling  you  about  he  had  one  arm 
in  a  sling  and  he  walked  with  a  limp.  8.  He  is  a  good  player, 
but  Tim  is  equally  as  good.  9.  Henry  gave  up  at  once,  but 
Richard  he  stuck  to  it.  10.  After  I  have  finished  up  this  job, 
what  shall  I  do  next.'*  11.  They  each  had  a  dollar  apiece.  12. 
I  think  that  by  taking  the  lower  road  that  we  shall  reach  home 
an  hour  sooner.  13.  Of  course  there  may  be  other  ways  of  which 
I  know  nothing  about.  14.  He  gave  the  both  of  us  all  that  we 
could  carry.  15.  The  building  is  low  as  compared  with  ordi- 
nary dwellings.  16.  Let  the  water  boil  for  about  five  minutes 
from  the  time  it  begins  to  boil.  17.  For  a  new  beginner,  Helen 
dances  very  well.  18.  From  this  mammoth  station  trains 
start  every  few  minutes  for  their  destinations.  19.  He  fished 
with  a  long  bamboo  pole  about  ten  feet  long.  20.  The  cottage 
was  covered  on  the  outside  with  vines  that  grew  all  over  it. 


Simplify  the  following  by  making  ivhaiever  changes  seem 
necessary. 

1.  After  I  had  made  a  careful  examination,  I  made  up  my 
mind  to  take  the  red  one.  2.  While  I  was  debating  what  I 
should  do,  I  saw  Henry  approaching  toward  me.  3.  In  the 
cutting-room,  which  is  situated  on  the  second  floor,  is  where 
the  actual  construction  of  the  tires  is  begun.  4.  Once  upon 
a  time  there  were  some  men  who  were  engaged  in  building  a 
tall  chimney.  5.  A  boy  whose  name  was  Wilbur  brought  the 
milk.  C.  To  clean  windows,  the  first"  thing  to  do  is  to  get 
a  basin  of  warm  water,  a  cake  of  soap,  and  two  or  three  cloths. 


DRILL  EXERCISES  267 

7.  This  friend  had  a  daughter  who  was  about  as  old  as  Kitty 
was,  whose  name  was  Bessie.  8.  His  downfall  was  due  to  the 
excessive  drinking  of  intoxicating  liquor.  9.  After  talking 
with  a  man  who  had  long  made  a  business  of  building  boats, 
we  decided  to  make  our  boat  of  cedar  wood.  10.  Simplicity 
is  one  of  the  qualities  which  are  essential  to  a  true  gentleman. 


8 

Cmrihine  each  group  of  sentences  into  a  single  sentence  free 
from  unnecessary  words. 

1.  Edgar  has  been  invited.    Mary  has  been  invited.    Eleanor 

has  been  invited. 

2.  The  captain  was  an  old  man.     He  liked  to  tell  stories. 

His  face  was  brown  and  wrinkled. 

3.  The    Pequots    were    the    most    warlike    Indians    of    New 

England.  They  were  settled  in  the  southeast  part 
of  what  is  now  Connecticut. 

4.  They  divided  the  crowd.     Brutus  took  one  section.     Cas- 

sius  took  the  other. 

5.  Morning    came.      John    arose    early.      He    ate    breakfast 

hurriedly.  He  did  not  stop  to  light  the  fire.  He  paddled 
across  the  lake.  He  hoped  to  find  his  companion.  This 
companion  he  had  lost  the  day  before. 

9 

If  you  will  read  a  page  of  good  prose,  keeping  grammatical 
structure  in  mind,  you  may  be  surprised  to  find  how  many 
sentences  are  elliptical.  That  is  to  say,  they  are  incom- 
plete; words  are  omitted  which  the  reader  is  expected  to 
supply.  Even  more  elliptical  are  the  sentences  employed 
in  conversation.  In  the  rapid  fire  of  daily  talk,  we  omit  a 
great  many  words.  Such  time-saving  devices  are  good. 
Occasionally,  however,  the  omission  leaves  the  meaning 
clouded,  or  changes  it  altogether,  sometimes  with  humor- 
ous effect. 


268  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

Supply  missing  wordsy  and  make  whatever  other  changes  are 
necessary  for  clearness. 

1.  Clean  the  meat  thoroughly,  then  roll  in  flour  before 
putting  it  in  the  oven.  2.  He  likes  the  first  better  than  any 
in  the  lot.  3.  He  showed  me  a  lot  of  medals  he  won.  4.  Satur- 
day is  better  than  any  day  in  the  week.  5.  We  went  to  pick 
flowers  and  fish.  6.  I  then  drop  the  corn  mixture  by  table- 
spoonfuls  into  the  hot  fat  and  fry  like  eggs,  turning  over  when 
one  side  is  a  golden  brown.  7.  It  was  a  beautiful  June  evening 
that  our  party  gathered  for  a  frolic.  8.  The  little  canary  took 
the  journey  with  us;  please  thank  John  for  sending  us  the 
cage  to  travel  in.  9.  The  captain  said  that  while  the  steamer 
was  in  the  ice-track,  the  weather  became  cold  enough  to  wear 
an  overcoat.  10.  His  face  was  thin  and  pinched,  a  red  nose, 
mouth  open,  and  little  black  eyes. 

10 

Make  the  following  sentences  either  simple  or  complex,  in 
each  case  noting  whether  the  change  is  an  improvement. 

1.  I  went  to  bed  at  half-past  nine  and  it  was  still  snowing. 
9,.  He  turned  to  close  the  door  and  I  noticed  that  his  hand 
trembled.  3.  The  guide  walked  ahead,  and  he  pointed  out  the 
trail  and  warned  against  hidden  dangers.  4.  I  have  a  partner 
and  he  is  your  porter  and  he  must  receive  his  share  of  the 
reward.  5.  I  was  sitting  by  the  window  and  I  happened  to 
look  up  and  I  saw  father  coming  through  the  gate.  6.  We 
washed  the  dishes  and  then  we  swept  the  kitchen  and  then  we 
went  berrying.  7.  Meanwhile  the  two  gentlemen  inside  the 
coach  were  little  disposed  to  sleep  and  the  time  was  passed  in 
conversation.  8.  About  the  end  of  November  each  plant  should 
be  covered  with  a  piece  of  sod  and  the  sod  should  be  laid  grass- 
side  down.  9.  Some  varieties  of  tall  English  delphiniums  are 
very  beautiful,  and  among  them  is  one,  the  coelestinum,  of 
the  loveliest  shade  of  light  blue,  with  very  large,  double,  in- 
dividual flowers.  10.  In  flight  it  hurls  itself  through  the  air 
with  tremendous  speed,  and  its  rapidly  moving  wings  almost 
form  a  haze  about  its  glancing  form. 


COURSE  IX 

COMPOSITION 

Training  the  Imagination 
Dialogue  and  soliloquy- 
Re  telling  stories  from  a  new  angle 
Diaries  and  autobiography 
The  writing  of  stories,  a  few  hints  being  given 

DRILL 


Spelling 

Latin  prefixes 

Sentence  Revision 
Avoiding  and 
Practice  in  substitution 

Choice  of  Words 

Words  that  picture 


TRAINING  THE  IMAGINATION 

We  are  apt  to  think  of  the  business  man  as  a  person  of 
plain,  hard  sense,  by  no  means  a  dreamer;  yet  in  reality 
many  a  merchant  prince  owes  his  success  in  no  small  degree 
to  a  lively,  well-trained  imagination.  The  next  time  you 
stand  where  you  can  look  down  on  a  big  manufacturing 
plant  where  thousands  are  employed,  and  machines,  almost 
human,  clatter  from  morning  till  night,  ask  yourself  whether 
the  men  who  direct  this  mammoth  industry,  collecting  raw 
materials  from  mine  and  field  and  forest,  and  changing  them 
into  useful  products  to  be  marketed  in  all  parts  of  the  world, 
are  merely  men  of  hard  sense,  or  whether  they  too  must  have 
well  trained  imaginations.  If  you  have  ever  lived  where 
you  could  watch  the  building  of  a  great  cathedral,  has  it 
never  occurred  to  you  that  before  the  foundation  stones  left 
the  quarry  the  designer  of  the  huge  structure  must  have 
been  able  to  picture  in  his  mind  everything  as  it  would 
finally  appear  when  the  last  bit  of  scaffolding  had  been 
cleared  away.^^  That  surely  called  for  imagination.  Per- 
haps, if  you  turn  the  matter  over  in  your  mind  times  enough, 
you  will  conclude  that  the  doctor,  the  lawyer,  the  states- 
man, the  general,  the  teacher,  the  preacher,  all  have  need  of 
active  imaginations,  the  ability  to  see  with  the  eyes  closed, 
ability  to  invent,  ability  to  put  oneself  in  another's  place. 

The  importance  of  keeping  the  imagination  alert  has  been 
touched  upon  many  times  in  earlier  Courses.  You  have 
been  urged,  for  example,  to  shut  your  eyes  and  picture  in 
detail  what  your  words  are  to  convey,  thus  getting  every- 
thing clear  in  your  own  mind  first.     You  have  been  urged 

271 


272  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

to  think  shrewdly  about  those  who  are  to  receive  your 
words,  studying,  through  imagination,  their  minds,  thus  de- 
termining what  form  your  message  should  take  to  make  sure 
that  it  will  be  received.  The  tasks  in  this  Course  invite 
you  to  exercise  imagination  in  a  more  direct  way.  Get  all 
the  pleasure  from  them  that  you  can,  but  do  not  lose  sight 
of  the  fact  that  all  are  intensely  practical.  Whoever  has 
for  servants  five  alert,  well-trained  senses  and  a  reliable 
memory  is  fortunate,  but  he  needs  imagination  too.  Like 
the  five  senses  and  the  memory,  imagination  can  be  trained. 
It  certainly  should  be. 

EXERCISE  1 

Read  again  the  story  entitled  Partners,  found  on  page  23. 
Imagine  that  you  are  writing  a  play  in  two  scenes:  (1)  the 
scene  at  the  palace  gate,  where  the  partnership  between  the 
fisherman  and  the  porter  is  formed;  (2)  the  scene  vnthin  the 
palace,  where  the  partnership  is  dissolved.  Write  the  dialogue 
for  the  first  scene.  If  the  task  is  sufficiently  well  done  to  war- 
rant it,  the  instructor  may  permit  two  members  of  iJie  class  to 
act  the  play-version. 

EXERCISE  2 

The  lower  parts  of  the  Amazon  river  are  very  wide.  The 
story  is  told  of  a  ship's  crew  whose  water  casks  w^ere  empty 
at  the  end  of  a  long  voyage.  They  had  been  tempest  tossed 
for  many  days  and  had  lost  all  account  of  where  they  were. 
They  were  dying  with  thirst,  even  though  they  were  in  the 
river  where  the  water  was  fresh  and  drinkable.  This,  how- 
ever, they  did  nof  know.  Imagine  the  situation.  Then 
imagine  a  second  vessel  coming  alongside,  discovering  the 
trouble,  and  bidding  the  sailors  cast  overboard  a  bucket, 
haul  it  up  full,  and  drink. 

Tell  the  story  briefly,  in  dialogue  form,  patterning  after  the 
story  entitled  A  Sad  Little  Lass,  found  on  page  276. 


TRAINING  THE  IMAGINATION  273 

EXERCISE  3 

Write  a  dialogue,  not  too  long,  between  two  people  whom  you 
know  very  well.  The  subject  of  the  conversation  may  be  any- 
thing you  please;  all  that  is  called  for  is  natural  conversation 
such  as  these  two  might  engage  in.  You  may  even  reproduce 
a  conversation  half -remembered. 

In  arranging  dialogue,  an  indention  (make  a  deep  one)  in- 
dicates where  each  speaker  begins.  Quotation  marks  are 
unnecessary.  Put  at  the  head  of  the  dialogue,  under  the 
title,  some  such  explanation  as  this: 

Time:   ten  o'clock  on  a  Saturday  morning  in  June. 
Place:    garage  in  the  rear  of  Parker's  house. 
Speakers:   Tom    Parker,    a    boy    of    fourteen;     Ned    Snow, 
Tom's  chum. 

EXERCISE  4 

Write  a  dialogue  between  two  people  whom  you  have  im- 
agined. Not  only  preface  the  dialogue  with  brief  explanation, 
but  slip  in  here  and  there  a  hint  to  help  the  reader  to  picture 
things,  thus: 

Getting  Dinner 

Time:  about  noon  on  a  mild  December  day. 

Place:  an  open  field  on  a  hillside  looking  down  into  a  valley 
of  wild  growth. 

Characters:  two  boys,  one  tall  and  fair,  the  other  a  little 
fellow,  all  freckles.  They  are  preparing  to  fry  bacon  over  a 
fire  built  between  two  big  stones. 

Tall  boy:  See  if  you  can't  find  some  more  wood.  This 
stuff's  too  green. 

Freckles  (getting  down  on  his  hands  and  knees  and  blowing) : 
It'll  go  all  right  if  you  just  blow  it. 

Tall  boy  (with  a  superior  air):    That  won't  do  any  good. 

Freckles:  Won't  it,  though!  Did  you  see  that  flame  just 
then? 


274  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

Tall  boy:  Do  you  call  that  a  flame?  That's  a  spark,  Billy, 
a  weak  spark  about  suffocated  with  smoke.  Where's  the 
hatchet?  I'm  going  to  get  some  stuff  from  that  old  apple 
, tree. 

Freckles:  Wait  a  second.  There  (with  an  air  of  triumph)! 
What  did  I  tell  you!  I  knew  it  would  burn.  Where's  the 
bacon? 

Here  are  suggestions  which  may  help  you  in  determining 
what  the  dialogue  shall  be  about. 

1.  Two  hunters  who  have  lost  their  way.  2.  An  automobilist 
inquiring  the  way  of  a  boy  who  doesn't  quite  know  but  is 
tremendously  willing.  3.  Two  tramps  planning  the  day. 
4.  Two  girls  planning  a  party.  5.  The  postman  and  a  little 
girl  who  asks  him  for  a  letter.  6.  Just  before  the  boat  struck. 
7.  It's  a  burglar!  8.  Consoling  the  defeated  captain.  9. 
In  an  elevator  stuck  between  two  landings.  10.  Trapped  — 
no  fire  escape!  11.  Over  the  top.  12.  Back  from  the  war. 
13.  Whispered  in  No  Man's  Land.  14.  Mr.  Jones  and  his 
wife  in  their  new  automobile.  He  is  learning  to  drive;  has 
stalled  his  engine. 

EXERCISE  5 

Write  a  dialogue  suggested  by  one  of  the  hints  given  below. 
You  will  notice  that  the  dialogue  must  have  a  purpose  —  the 
proving  of  a  pointy  or  the  working  out  of  a  little  problem. 

1.  You  have  applied  for  a  position.  The  man  to  whom  you 
have  applied  is  questioning  you.  Or  you  may  be  the  man, 
questioning  an  applicant. 

2.  You  are  a  clerk,  waiting  on  a  customer  who  is  far  from 
agreeable.  You  know  you  must  not  offend,  yet  it  is  hard  for 
you  to  keep  your  temper. 

3.  You  are  trying  to  explain  to  a  bright,  eager  youngster 
how  to  start  and  how  to  stop  an  automobile.  He  interrupts 
with  many  questions. 

4.  You  are  trying  to  persuade  your  father  to  buy  you  a 
canoe.     He  is  afraid  of  canoes. 


TRAINING  THE  IMAGINATION  275 

5.  You  are  a  landlord.  A  tenant  wishes  more  repairs  made 
than  you  think  justifiable.  You  try  to  satisfy  the  tenant  with- 
out giving  in. 

6.  A  policeman  is  questioning  you  closely  concerning  an 
accident  that  you  have  witnessed. 

7.  Two  boys  are  talking.  One  is  planning  to  go  to  college. 
The  other,  upon  leaving  school,  plans  to  find  a  position  in  an 
office  or  a  bank.     Each  thinks  he  has  chosen  the  wiser  course. 

8.  Two  merchants  are  discussing  the  desirability  of  frequent 
markdown  sales.     They  are  of  different  minds. 

9.  Two  girls  are  *' booming"  the  places  where  they  spend 
their  vacations.  Each  pretends  to  be  sorry  for  the  other, 
but  all  the  banter  is  good-natured. 

10.  Two  men  owning  different  makes  of  automobile  are  in 
earnest  argument. 

11.  You  are  urging  a  friend  who  is  not  getting  along  well  with 
his  studies  not  to  leave  school. 

12.  Two  men,  one  of  whom  owns  a  motor  boat  while  the 
other  owns  a  motor-cycle,  are  arguing  earnestly  in  regard  to 
their  hobbies. 

EXERCISE  6  / 

Here  are  two  stories  to  study.  The  first  contains  but 
135  words  in  all,  yet  you  probably  feel  that  a  word  more 
would  mar  its  perfection.  Details.?  There  are  next  to 
none.  This  seems  to  contradict  what  is  said  in  an  earlier 
page  about  the  desirability  of  details.  But  perhaps  in  this 
case  the  purpose  of  the  poet  was  unusual.  "I'll  give," 
she  may  have  said  to  herself,  "merely  a  scrap  of  conversa- 
tion revealing  the  heart  of  the  story,  and  let  the  readers 
have  the  pleasure  of  imagining  the  rest  —  what  comes  be- 
fore, what  after,  and  all  the  details  that  picture  place  and 
actors."  If  that  was  her  plan,  how  well  she  succeeded. 
And  let  us  give  her  credit  for  another  thing:  the  story  con- 
tains a  surprise,  and  this  surprise  comes  at  the  tip  end, 
where  it  should.  The  secret  once  out,  the  story  ends  ab- 
ruptly.    That  is  good  art. 


276  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

Now  study  the  second  story.  It  is  considerably  longer 
than  the  first,  yet  none  too  long.  Details  are  given  because 
they  are  necessary.  It  is  important  that  we  know  where 
Napoleon  was  and  what  he  was  thinking  about.  How  anx- 
ious he  was!  How  welcome  the  news  that  the  boy  brought! 
We  must  be  made  to  feel,  moreover,  that  it  was  no  uncom- 
mon thing  that  the  boy  had  done,  and  that  he  died  blissfully 
happy  in  the  thought  that  he  had  given  his  life  for  his  great 
commander.  How  necessary  is  every  detail.  Run  through 
the  lines  to  see  if  you  can  find  a  word,  either  picturing  what 
the  eye  sees  or  revealing  emotions,  that  could  be  spared. 
Finally  notice  not  only  that  the  actual  words  spoken  by 
Napoleon  and  the  boy  are  given,  but  that  the  entire  story 
evidently  comes  from  the  lips  of  one  who  was  present. 

By  way  of  exercising  your  imagination,  perform  one  of  the 
following  tasks:  (1)  Write  down  ten  questions  such  as  a  child  — 
let  us  say  a  little  girl- — might  ask  who  had  listened  to  the  poem 
entitled  A  Sad  Little  Lass.  (2)  Write  down  ten  or  more  ques- 
tions that  a  boy  might  ask  who  had  heard  An  Incident  of  the 
French  Camp  read,  but  had  not  understood  it  perfectly.  If 
you  try  this  second  task,  it  will  be  strange  if  you  do  not  think  of 
a  few  questions  that  you  yourself  have  found  puzzling. 

Exchange  papers  with  a  classmate  and  write  out  clear  an- 
swers to  his  questions. 

The  Sad  Little  Lass* 

"Why  sit  you  here,  my  lass?"  said  he. 
"I  came  to  see  the  king,"  said  she,  — 
**To  see  the  king  come  riding  by, 
While  all  the  eager  people  cry, 
*God  bless  the  king,  and  long  live  he!' 
And  therefore  sit  I  here,"  said  she. 

*  Reprinted  from  St.  Nicholas  magazine  by  permission  of  the  author 
and  the  Century  Publishing  Co. 


TRAINING  THE  IMAGINATION  277 

*'Why  do  you  weep,  my  lass?"  said  he. 
''Because  that  I  am  sad,"  said  she. 
"For  when  the  king  came  riding  by. 
And  all  the  people  raised  a  cry, 
I  was  so  small  I  could  not  see; 
And  therefore  do  I  weep,"  said  she. 

"Then  weep  no  more,  my  lass!"  said  he. 

"And  pray,  good  sir,  why  not?"  said  she. 

"Lift  up  your  eyes  of  bonnie  blue, 

And  look  and  look  me  through  and  through; 

Nor  say  the  king  you  could  not  see. 

I  am  the  king,  my  lass!"  said  he. 

Margaret  Johnson 

Incident  of  the  French  Camp 

You  know,  we  French  stormed  Ratisbon. 

A  mile  or  so  away. 
On  a  little  mound.  Napoleon 

Stood  on  our  storming-day. 
With  neck  out-thrust,  you  fancy  how. 

Legs  wide,  arms  locked  behind, 
As  if  to  balance  the  prone  brow 

Oppressive  with  its  mind. 

Just  as  perchance  he  mused,  "  My  plans 

That  soar,  to  earth  may  fall. 
Let  once  my  army-leader  Lannes 

Waver  at  yonder  wall"  — 
Out  'twixt  the  battery-smokes  there  flew 

A  rider,  bound  on  bound. 
Full-galloping;   nor  bridle  drew    • 

Until  he  reached  the  mound. 

Then  off  there  flung  in  smiling  joy. 

And  held  himself  erect 
By  just  his  horse's  mane,  a  boy; 

You  hardly  could  suspect  — 


278  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

(So  tight  he  kept  his  lips  compressed. 

Scarce  any  blood  came  through) 
You  looked  twice  ere  you  saw  his  breast 

Was  all  but  shot  in  two. 

"Well,"  cried  he,  "Emperor,  by  God's  grace 

We've  got  you  Ratisbon! 
The  Marshal's  in  the  market-place, 

And  you'll  be  there  anon  * 

To  see  your  flag-bird  flap  his  vans 

Where  I,  to  heart's  desire, 
.    Perched  him!"     The  chief's  eye  flashed;  his  plans 

Soared  up  again  like  fire. 

The  chief's  eye  flashed;   but  presently 

Softened  itself,  as  sheathes 
A  film  the  mother-eagle's  eye 

When  her  bruised  eaglet  breathes. 
"You're  wounded!"    "Nay,"  the  soldier's  pride 

Touched  to  the  quick,  he  said; 
"I'm  killed.  Sire!"     And  his  chief  beside. 

Smiling,  the  boy  fell  dead. 

Robert  Browning 

EXERCISE  7 

Rewrite  in  the  first  person  any  one  of  the  stories  you  have 
read  in  this  book. 

That  is,  imagine  that  you  are  the  little  girl  who  saw  the 
king,  one  of  the  guests  present  at  the  nobleman's  wedding 
feast,  the  judge  before  whom  the  merchants  brought  the 
dervish,  the  wolf  who  declined  the  house  dog's  invitation, 
or  a  neighbor  of  the  peasant  who  drank  from  the  fountain 
of  youth.  Imagine  also  the  individual  or  the  group  to  whom 
you  will  tell  the  story.  Forget  all  about  the  language  of 
the  book;  let  yourself  go.  Make  a  game  of  it,  not  a  task. 
Yet  let  your  final  copy  be  a  model  —  neat  in  penmanship, 
the  margin  carefully  preserved  at  the  left,  the  indentions  an 
inch  deep  and  in  the  right  places. 


TRAINING  THE  IMAGINATION  279 


EXERCISE  8 

In  plays  and  novels  a  character  sometimes  is  made  to 
talk  to  himself  —  think  out  loud.  Talking  to  oneself  is 
called  soliloquy.  The  term  is  derived  from  two  Latin 
words,  one  meaning  aloney  the  other  to  speak.  Soliloquy  is  a 
useful  story  telling  device,  as  you  readily  see,  yet  apt  to 
lead  to  artificiality;  for  people  do  not  often  talk  out  loud 
to  themselves  though  occasionally  one  hears,  in  a  crowded 
street,  a  man  mumbling  to  himself  as  he  hurries  along, 
perhaps  with  an  emphatic  gesture  now  and  then.  But 
every  one  has  thoughts  constantly  running  through  his 
mind;  and  not  infrequently  a  chance  word  suggests  some- 
thing far  away.  "A  penny  for  your  thoughts,'*  a  friend  may 
exclaim.  Then  you  realize  that  you  have  been  caught  "day 
dreaming."  Day  dreams,  reveries,  are  chains  of  thought 
unbetrayed  by  spoken  words. 

Imagining  that  you  are  one  of  the  following  persons  or  things y 
invent  either  a  soliloquy y  or  a  day  dream,  or  a  chain  of  hidden 
thought.  Give  tfie  composition  an  appropriate  title.  The 
hints  given  below  may  help  you  in  getting  started,  but  you  may 
disregard  them  altogether,  if  you  wish. 

1.  A  boy  who  has  just  finished  planting  a  garden,  estimat- 
ing the  yield  of  his  crop  and  thinking  what  to  get  with  the 
money  it  will  doubtless  bring  —  like  the  milkmaid  who  counted 
her  chickens  before  they  were  hatched.  2.  A  schoolgirl, 
dreaming  what  she  would  do  if  she  were  a  soldier  —  brave, 
of  course,  and  clever  beyond  belief.  3.  A  shipwrecked  sailor, 
who  has  been  cast  upon  the  shore  of  a  strange  land.  4.  A 
general,  approaching  a  sleeping  sentinel.  5.  A  boy,  about  to 
take  part  in  his  first  football  game.  6.  A  customer,  trying 
to  decide  which  of  two  articles  to  purchase.  7.  Grandmother, 
half  dozing.  8.  A  broken  paddle,  or  a  key  the  lock  for  which 
has  been  lost,  a  steel  helmet,  a  goldfish,  an  "isle  of  safety'* 
sign,  or  a  new  locomotive,  thinking  out  loud. 


280  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

EXERCISE  9 

111  the  Eighteenth  Century  it  was  the  fashion  to  tell  stories 
in  diary  form.  Sometimes  letters  were  introduced.  School- 
boys of  the  present  day  have  employed  this  method  with 
success,  turning  out  short  stories  bright  and  readable. 
Perhaps  you  can  do  what  others  of  your  years  have  done. 
Try  it. 

Write  a  few  pages  made  up  of  extracts  from  an  imaginary 
diary.  Do  not  try  to  tell  a  story  unless  this  comes  easily^  but 
try  to  make  ivhat  you  write  reveal  character.  For  example,  if 
you  write  a  tramp's  diary ,  make  it  tramp-like;  and  since  even 
tramps  are  not  all  alike,  give  your  particular  wanderer  a  char- 
acter all  his  own,  if  you  can.     Here  are  suggestions: 

1.  The  diary  of  a  small  boy.  2.  The  diary  of  a  tramp. 
3.  What  the  aviator  wrote.  4.  Camp  notes.  5.  The  diary 
of  a  yellow  dog.  6.  The  cast-away's  diary.  7.  What  the 
automobile  would  have  written  if  it  could  have  written.  8. 
On  board  ship.  9.  The  diary  of  a  returned  soldier.  10.  The 
diary  of  a  spy. 

EXERCISE  10 

"For  want  of  a  nail  the  shoe  was  lost;  for  want  of  a  shoe 
the  horse  was  lost;  for  want  of  a  horse  the  rider  was  lost." 
Thus  runs  the  old  saying,  reminding  us  that  fiction  such  as 
we  find  in  novels  and  plays,  indeed  life  itself,  is  but  a  game 
of  consequences.  There  are  few  more  dramatic  tales  than 
one  which  tells  what  came  of  picking  up  a  piece  of  string 
lying  in  the  highway. 

Imagine  a  chain  of  incidents  suggested  by  one  of  the 
following: 

1.  A  ticket  forgotten.  2.  A  gust  of  wind.  3.  Took  the 
wrong  suit  case.  4.  Went  home  by  an  unusual  route.  5.  A 
misdirected  letter.  6.  A  thoughtless  word.  7.  Happening  to 
meet  Joe.  8.  A  white  lie.  9.  It  began  with  a  snow  ball. 
10.    Because  his  shoe-string  broke. 


TRAINING  THE  IMAGINATION  281 

EXERCISE  11 

Invent,  out  of  pure  imagination,  a  paragraph  beginning  with 
one  of  the  following  sentences,  or  with  a  similar  one  supplied 
by  the  instructor, 

1.  At  that  moment  Jim  crept  over  the  ledge  into  the  murky 

room  where  the  kiddies  were  supposed  to  be. 

2.  I  rang  and  rang,  but  nobody  came  to  the  door;    yet  all 

the  while  a  lady  sat  by  the  front  window  calmly  knitting. 

3.  With  a  start  the  sentinel  awoke,  and  the  first  sight  to 

greet    his   eyes    was    the   great   Napoleon  pacing  back 
and  forth,  standing  guard  in  his  place. 

EXERCISE   12 

Make  up  a  short  story  suggested  by  one  of  the  following 
hints.  Invent  an  appropriate  title  to  go  with  the  story  —  one 
that  does  not  reveal  too  much  of  the  plot. 

1.  The  wrong  door.  2.  The  two  letters  were  placed  in  the 
wrong  envelopes.  3.  Stole  his  own  umbrella.  4.  Why  the 
captain  failed  to  appear.  5.  What  came  from  inserting  an 
advertisement.  6.  Missed  the  train.  7.  The  amateur  de- 
tective. 8.  The  tank  was  empty.  9.  Unsuccessful  attempt 
to  get  rid  of  a  dog,  or  a  suit  of  clothes,  or  whatever  you  please. 
10.  Locked  in  —  or  out.  11.  A  case  of  mistaken  identity. 
12.  What  happened  because  of  a  rumor.  13.  In  No  Man's 
Land. 

EXERCISE   13 

Autobiography  comes  from  three  Greek  words  meaning 
self,  life,  and  to  write.  When  a  man  writes  the  story  of  his 
own  life,  the  account  is  an  autobiography.  Not  a  few  of  our 
great  authors  have  entertained  their  readers  by  writing  the 
pretended  autobiographies  of  animals  and  natural  objects. 
Probably  you  have  read  the  life  of  a  tree,  or  of  a  dog,  a 
horse,  or  a  little  tin  soldier. 


282  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

Pretending  that  you  are  one  of  the  objects  or  animals  men- 
tioned below,  write  a  three  hundred  word  autobiography. 

1.  A  baseball.  2.  A  coin.  3.  An  old  boat.  4.  A  tree. 
5.  An  old  blue  plate.  6.  A  ring.  7.  A  settler's  cabin.  8. 
A  soldier's  mess  kit.  9.  A  fish  pole.  10.  An  account  book. 
11.  An  Indian  arrow-head.  12.  A  doll.  13.  A  postage  stamp. 
14.  A  bluebird.  15.  A  dog,  a  horse,  or  some  other  domestic 
animal. 

Do  not  let  your  imagination  wander  lazily  along;  before 
beginning  to  write,  sketch  in  your  mind  all  that  you  are 
going  to  say.  Be  careful  to  keep  "in  character.*'  That  is, 
if  you  choose  to  be  a  fine  old  blue  plate,  you  must  have  a 
blue  plate  mind,  more  interested  in  tea-cups  than  in  litera- 
ture, and  perhaps  with  a  dread  of  children  and  careless 
cooks.  As  a  blue  plate,  the  dining-room  is  to  you  the  place 
of  greatest  importance  in  all  the  world.  You  are  proud  of 
your  aristocratic,  blueness,  and  are  unwilling  to  mingle  with 
plain  kitchen  plates.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  you  are  a  fish 
pole,  you  must  have  fish  pole  thoughts. 

EXERCISE  14 

Occasionally  a  book  appears  in  which  each  chapter  has 
been  written  by  a  different  author  of  note,  the  chapters 
combining  to  make  a  novel.  This  is  a  difficult  matter,  for 
the  one  who  is  to  write  the  second  chapter  does  not  know 
what  the  story  is  about  till  he  receives  the  first  chapter; 
each  has  to  take  the  story  up  where  he  finds  it,  and  carry 
it  on  for  a  certain  number  of  pages.  Youngsters,  too,  some- 
times get  fun  out  of  this  partnership  method,  each  young 
author  contributing  but  a  page  or  two  to  a  short  story, 
usually  a  "thriller." 

Let  four  members  of  the  class  be  chosen  to  write  a  story  in 
partnership.  Let  .the  order  in  ivhich  they  shall  tcrite  be  de- 
termined by  lot.  Each  author  should  be  given  two  days  in 
which  to  do  his  share. 


TRAINING  THE  IMAGINATION  283 

EXERCISE  16 

A  modified  form  of  the  preceding  exercise,  in  some  ways 
less  difficult,  calls  for  the  cooperative  planning  of  certain 
things,  each  member  of  the  class  being  given  a  definite  share 
in  the  work.  For  example,  a  house  having  been  chosen  as 
the  general  topic,  the  following  tasks  are  assigned  to  individ- 
uals :  (1)  a  description  of  the  building  as  it  appears  from  the 
street;  (2)  a  description  of  the  grounds,  front  yard  and  back 
yard;  (3)  descriptions  of  two  or  three  of  the  rooms  in  the 
house,  furnishings  included;  (4)  character  sketches  of  the 
members  of  the  family.  Or  a  camping  trip  may  be  de- 
scribed, with  the  following  division  of  labor:  (1)  a  brief  ac- 
count of  the  people  who  make  up  the  party;  (2)  an  account 
of  the  trip  to  the  camping  ground;  (3)  a  description  of  the 
camp  site;  (4)  unpacking  and  getting  settled;  (5)  the  first 
meal;  (6)  the  first  night;  (7)  a  typical  day;  (8)  a  rainy 
day;    (9)  breaking  camp;    (10)  the  trip  home. 

An  appropriate  subject  having  been  chosen  by  tJie  class,  the 
instriLctor  will  assign  each  member  his  part. 

EXERCISE  16 
A  clever  man  discovered  a  certain  mixture  of  gases  which  had 
wonderful  powers.  On  squeezing  one  end  of  a  flexible  tube  con- 
taining a  little  mixture,  the  person  holding  the  tube  in  his  hand 
would  gradually  rise  from  the  earth;  on  squeezing  the  other 
end  of  the  tube,  the  person  would  as  gradually  descend.  This 
*  device  he  used  with  great  pleasure  for  a  long  time,  finding  it 
especially  useful  in  taking  journeys  through  mountainous 
regions.  But  one  evening  when  he  was  sailing  along  about 
two  hundred  feet  above  a  mountain  village,  something  went 
wrong.  Probably  the  trouble  was  due  to  unusual  atmospheric 
conditions,  for  it  was  thundering  violently.  At  any  rate,  he 
suddenly  discovered  that  he  could  neither  descend  nor  ascend. 
What  to  do  he  could  not 

It  occurred  to  a  boy  much  interested  in  the  science  of  camou- 
flage that  camouflage  would  be  quite  unnecessary  if  one  could 


284  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

but  discover  something  that  would  make  people  invisible. 
He  was  experimenting,  one  evening,  and  had  just  mixed  a  few 
chemicals  in  a  saucer  when  the  doorbell  rang.  Returning  a 
few  minutes  later,  he  caught  the  cat  just  as  she  was  jumping 
down  from  the  table  at  which  he  had  been  working.  The 
saucer  was  empty.      Suddenly 

Tell  a  short  story  suggested  by  one  of  the  above  fragments. 

EXERCISE   17 
Let  the  class,  working  cooperatively,  invent  a  plot  to  go  with 
this  picture. 


EXERCISE  18 

Write  a  short  story  to  go  with  the  picture  facing  this  page. 
Who  are  these  people  hastening  toward  the  circus  tent?  Have 
all  four  money  enough  to  take  them  in?  What  adventure  did 
one  of  the  four  have?  Did  the  clown  play  any  part  in  the 
adventure? 


TRAINING  THE  IMAGINATION 


285 


*/   C^rmibi"^    /I 


Circus  Day 


DRILL  EXERCISES 
LATIN   PREFIXES 

Not  uncommonly  a  prefix  furnishes  a  hint  of  what  the 
word  it  introduces  means,  and  sometimes  it  throws  the 
door  wide  open,  revealing  at  once  the  entire  secret.  Hence 
a  little  study  of  prefixes  is  well  worth  while.  It  helps  one 
to  determine  quickly  the  meaning  of  strange  words.  It 
leads  to  greater  accuracy  in  the  use  of  words  already  familiar. 
Finally,  it  is  an  aid  to  correct  spelling;  for  frequently  the 
trouble  lies  in  the  joint  where  the  prefix  is  attached.  Since 
so  many  of  our  words  are  of  Latin  origin,  and  among  them  a 
surprising  number  that  are  misspelled,  a  study  of  the  Latin 
prefixes  is  especially  helpful. 


Inter  commonly  means  among  or  between.  Its  force  is 
seen  plainly  in  interwoven  and  international. 

Circum  means  about  or  around.  To  circumnavigate  the 
globe  is  to  sail  quite  round  it.  Telling  all  the  circumstances 
means  giving  the  surrounding  facts. 

Post  commonly  means  after.  Script  comes  from  the  Latin 
word  meaning  to  write.  Something  added  to  a  letter  after 
the  v/riter  has  signed  his  name  is  a  postscript.  Mortem  is  a 
form  of  a  Latin  word  meaning  death.  A  post-mortem  ex- 
amination is  an  examination  made  after  death. 

Ante  commonly  means  before.  It  is  the  opposite  of  post. 
An  ante  mortem  confession  is  a  death-bed  confession.  Some- 
times this  prefix  takes  the  form  of  anti,  as  in  anticipate. 

£86 


DRILL  EXERCISES 


287 


To  anticipate  trouble  is  to  see  or  fear  it  before  it  comes. 
There  is  a  Greek  prefix  anti,  meaning  against.  Anti-slavery 
means  against  slavery.  We  see  this  Greek  prefix,  disguised 
a  little,  in  antagonist. 

Pre,  like  ante,  means  before.  Judicium  is  a  Latin  word 
meaning  judgment.  A  prejudice y  then,  is  an  opinion  formed 
before  one  has  taken  the  time  necessary  for  a  careful  ex- 
amination. 

Pro  commonly  means  foricard  or  instead  of.  When  we 
go  forward,  we  progress.  The  elephant's  trunk  is  called  his 
proboscis.  Bosco,  from  which  this  word  is  derived,  means 
to  feed;  hence  the  elephant's  proboscis  is  his  front  feeder. 
A  pronoun  is  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun. 

Study  the  words  found  below.  Point  out  the  prefixes. 
Which  of  them  are  slightly  disguised?  If  a  prefix  has  more 
than  one  meaning,  tell  what  meaning  is  intended  in  a  given 
word.  In  which  of  the  words  does  the  force  of  the  prefix  seem 
rather  weak?  What  other  words  can  you  think  of  that  begin 
with  these  prefixes? 


postpone 

interval 

postgraduate 

produce 

antedate 

preface 

intersect 

prehistoric 

prepaid 

promote 

precaution 

antique 

preliminary 

prospect . 

prosecute 

intermediate 

proceed 

premature 

persecute 

protect 

precede 

predecessor 

anteroom 

interview 

circumference 

interfere 

premeditate 

procession 

anticipate 

prolong 

ante-bellum 

promenade 

protrude 

prefer 

preelection 

antecedent 

Look  up  in  the  dictionary  both  the  meaning  and  the  deriva- 
tion of  the  following  words: 

prelude  circumlocution       posthumous       presage 

interlude       preamble  antipodes  professor 

antidote        precipitate  antiquary  circumspect 


288 


JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 


Per  commonly  means  through  or  by.  Perforate  means  to 
bore  through.  Percent  is  but  a  contraction  of  the  Latin 
per  centum.  Centum  means  hundred;  therefore  percent 
means  by  the  hundred. 

Re  means  back,  again,  or  against.  It  appears  in  many 
words.     Retreat,  reiterate,  and  repel  are  examples. 

De  most  commonly  means  from,  down,  or  away.  Caput  is 
Latin  for  head.  Decapitate,  then,  means  to  take  away  the 
head  —  separate  it  from  the  rest  of  the  body.  Deposit  is 
made  up  of  de,  meaning  down,  and  a  Latin  word  meaning 
to  place  or  put. 

Super  means  above,  over,  or  beyond.  A  superintendent  is 
one  placed  over  or  above  others,  to  direct  them.  A  super- 
abundance is  beyond,  or  more  than,  mere  abundance. 

Trans,  sometimes  shortened  to  tran  or  tra,  means  across, 
over,  beyond,  or  through.  Its  force  is  seen  in  transfer,  trans- 
atlantic, and  transparent. 

Ab,  sometimes  appearing  as  a  or  abs,  signifies  from  or  away. 
Norma  is  the  Latin  word  for  rule;  hence  the  English  word 
normal,  meaning  according  to  rule,  or  natural.  Abnormal, 
then,  means  away  from  the  rule,  or  unnatural.  Abstract  is 
made  up  of  abs  and  a  Latin  word  meaning  to  draw.  Hence 
to  abstract  is  to  draw  from.  In  avert,  meaning  to  turn  aside 
or  to  ward  off,  the  prefix  is  shortened  to  a. 

Study  the  following  words.  Pick  out  the  prefixes  and  give 
the  meaning  of  each.  In  which  of  the  words  does  the  prefix 
help  in  conveying  the  meaning?  What  other  words  can  you 
think  of  which  have  these  prefixes? 


abdicate 

superfluous 

per  annum 

recess 

recommend 

abrupt 

retail 

abstain 

decamp 

recollect 

transgression 

rebate 

supernumerary 

superstition 

descendant 

remunerate 

transplant 

avert 

perennial 

reflect 

perspire 

transpose 

demerit 

traverse 

DRILL  EXERCISES  289 


The  prefixes  examined  thus  far  are  simple,  undergoing 
but  slight  changes,  if  any,  when  joined  to  the  root  or  parent- 
word.  The  prefixes  now  to  be  considered  call  for  closer 
study. 

Ex  commonly  means  out,  out  of,  off,  away  from,  or  beyond. 
Its  other  forms  are  e  and  ef .  The  prefix  is  seen  in  export 
emigrant,  and  effeminate.  The  one  thing  to  remember  is 
that  ex  changes  to  ef  before  words  beginning  with  /.  It  is 
always  safe,  when  hesitating  between  ef  and  eff,  to  choose  the 
latter.     Note  carefully  the  following  words: 


excellent 

elapse 

efface 

explain 

eloquence 

effect 

exhaust 

emissary 

effort 

In  commonly  means  in,  into,  or  not,  without.  It  has  the 
first  of  these  meanings  in  inhale,  which  means  to  breathe  in, 
just  as  exhale  means  to  expel  the  breath.  It  has  the  second 
meaning  in  ingratitude,  which  means  without  gratitude. 
What  makes  this  prefix  troublesome  is  that  it  changes  to  il, 
im,  ir,  before  stems  or  parent-words  beginning  with  I,  m,  r. 
Thus  instead  of  inlegible  and  inmortal  we  write  illegible  and 
immortal.  When  one  is  puzzled  as  to  whether  or  not  to  double 
the  consonant,  it  is  wise  to  stop  long  enough  to  determine 
what  the  parent- word  is,  and  what  form  the  prefix  takes. 
Note  the  following: 


inoculate 

illiterate 

immediately 

irregular 

innovation 

illogical 

immense 

irresolute 

inform 

illustrate 

immortal 

irreligious 

Com  usually  means  with  or  together.  But  like  in,  this 
prefix  undergoes  changes  before  certain  consonants,  be- 
coming col  before  I,  con  before  n,  cor  before  r.  Con  and  col 
appear  before  other  letters  too,  but  not  in  words  one  is  apt 
to  misspell;   so  when  in  doubt,  it  is  safe  to  double  the  con- 


290 


JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 


sonant.  Sometimes  the  prefix  appears  as  co,  as  is  seen  in 
coordinate.  Note  carefully  that  in  the  following  the  double 
consonant  appears,  and  that  in  each  the  idea  of  vnth  or 
together  is  evident: 


commission 
communicate 


connect 
connote 


collect 
collapse 


correspond 
corrupt 


Study  the  following  words,  looJcing  up  the  meanings  of  those 
with  which  you  are  not  perfectly  familiar.  In  which  have  the 
prefixes  been  changed  slightly?  In  which  does  the  prefix  help 
materially  in  conveying  the  meaning?  What  other  words  can 
you  think  of  in  which  these  prefixes  appear? 


conference 

immaturity 

inquisitive 

collateral 

illuminate 

committee 

collision 

irreverence 

excursion 

extort 

excavate 

eradicate 

concrete 

illegal 

inability 

effervescent 

inhuman 

commerce 

coeducation 

commission 

immigrant 

immaterial 

infuse 

cohere 

convene 

commissary 

enervate 

complex 

compete 

illogical 

illiberal 

compare 

Dis  usually  means  apart,  though  sometimes  it  has  the 
force  of  a  negative.  The  first  of  these  meanings  is  strong  in 
dissect,  the  second  in  disagree.  Dif  and  di  are  other  forms 
of  this  prefix.  There  is  a  common  tendency  to  substitute 
diss  for  dis  in  words  beginning  with  a  or  o.  Thus  we  write, 
incorrectly,  dissapear  for  disappear  and  dissorganize  for 
disorganize.  The  opposite  tendency,  to  omit  the  s  in  words 
in  which  the  stem  or  parent  word  begins  with  s  is  also  the 
cause  of  many  errors.  We  write,  incorrectly,  disolve  for 
dissolve.    Take  a  long  look  at  the  following  words: 


dis  agree 
dis  approve 


dis  sect 
dis  semble 


dis  suade 
dis  unite 


DRILL  EXERCISES 


291 


Ad  means  to.  Its  significance  is  clearly  seen  in  adhere 
and  adjoin.  So  commonly  was  this  prefix  used  by  the 
Romans  that  it  appears  in  a  multitude  of  words  that  we 
have  borrowed.  Seldom  do  we  note  its  presence  or  take  it 
into  consideration  when  analyzing  a  word  to  determine  the 
meaning.  It  deserves  attention,  however,  for  among  the 
words  in  which  it  appears  are  perhaps  scores  that  are  care- 
lessly misspelled.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  when  joined 
to  the  stem,  ad  changes  to  ac,  af,  ag,  etc.,  before  c,  /,  g,  etc. 
That  is,  the  final  letter  of  the  prefix  is  changed  to  the  first 
letter  of  the  stem.  Usually  it  is  safe,  then,  to  double  the 
consonant.     Note  the  following 


accompany 
account 


affix 
affidavit 


approve 
applause 


attempt 
attack 


Pick  out  ihe  prefixes  in  the  following  words  and  give  the 
meaning  of  each.  Be  prepared  to  write  the  words  from 
dictation  and,  if  required,  employ  them  in  sentences  in 
such  a  way  as  to  show  that  you  have  a  practical  knowl- 
edge of  their  meaning. 


disappoint 

accommodate 

appearance 

associate 

accordingly 

disallow 

assert 

apparatus 

address 

accent 

dissimilar 

accede 

approach 

apparent 

access 

dissatisfaction 

disobey 

acknowledge 

apply 

applicable 

announce 

disability 

affection 

attract 

allure 

application 

disadvantage 

appreciate 

disaster 

adjacent 

appoint* 

disobedience 

attend 

dissipate 

dissolve 

appeal 

6 

The  following  fifty  words  are  from  previous  exercises.  Be 
prepared  to  spell  them  from  dictation.  In  studying  this  ex- 
ercise, note  the  prefixes  with  care. 


292 


JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 


prejudice 

illogical 

attempt 

illustrate 

disappoint 

precede 

immediately 

accordingly 

predecessor 

immense 

address 

irregular 

approach 

interregnum 

communicate 

disobey 

antidote 

correspond 

announce 

recommend 

immigrant 

allure 

perspire 

committee 

disaster 

recollect 

illegal 

accommodate 

descendant 

commerce 

apparent 

collision 

acknowledge 

collateral 

appearance 

elapse 

commission 

apply 

rebate 

immaterial 

apparatus 

emissary 

disagree 

attract 

efface 

dissuade 

appeal 

account            , 

appreciate 

applause 

SENTENCE  REVISION 


Rewrite  the  followingy  in  each  case  trying  to  avoid  the 
conjunction  and.  //  a  sentence  is  unwieldy^  or  contains  items 
that  are  not  closely  related,  make  two  sentences  of  it. 

1.  Boston  is  the  capital  of  Massachusetts  and  has  been  called 
the  Hub  of  the  Universe.  2.  I  closed  my  eyes  and  thought  I 
could  meet  my  end  more  easily  that  way.  3.  It  was  a  large  house 
and  it  had  seven  gables  and  these  gables  met  in  a  clustering  chim- 
ney. 4.  It  was  a  warm  day  in  August  and  I  planned  to  visit  a 
small  island  a  mile  from  shore.  5.  The  three  young  men  were 
disguised  as  farmers  and  they  started  on  their  way  to  Camelot. 
6.  Comus  was  the  son  of  Circe  and  she  was  a  sorceress  and  Comus 
possessed  powers  of  enchantment  similar  to  his  mother's.  7.  The 
picnic  was  held  at  Laurel  park,  and  all  the  way  out  the  children 
laughed  and  sang.  8.  In  front  was  a  large  door  and  on  each  side 
of  this  was  a  narrow  window.  9.  This  tree  is  thirty  years  old, 
and  the  trunk  is  seven  feet  in  diameter,  and  spreads  out,  when 
about  four  feet  from  the  ground,  into  numerous  and  graceful 
branches,  and  it  is  nearly  flat  on  top,  and  the  leaf  is  of  a  dark  and 
glossy  green.  10.  The  tower  was  now  blazing  fiercely  and  the 
firemen  seemed  unable  to  cope  with  it,  as  there  were  few  engines 
there  and  the  rest  of  the  engines  were  busy  at  another  fire. 


DRILL  EXERCISES  293 


Improve  the  following  by  removing  and  whenever  possible. 
Make  two  or  more  sentences  of  one,  when  it  seems  best. 

1.  I  started  to  wheel  round  the  square,  and  to  do  so  I  went 
down  Court  street  and  turned  up  Main,  and  just  as  I  turned 
the  corner  I  felt  something  strike  me,  and  it  was  the  shaft  of 
an  express  wagon. 

2.  As  we  were  walking  up  the  street,  we  met  Tom,  and  he 
suggested  that  we  go  down  to  the  river  and  see  the  boat  come 
in;  and  so  down  we  went  and  arrived  just  in  time  to  see  her 
come  up  to  the  wharf,  and  much  to  our  surprise  we  found  Uncle 
Harry  there  waiting  for  a  friend. 

3.  Passing  up  the  side  street,  we  came  to  the  main  thorough- 
fare, and  there  we  saw  many  stores,  and  I  suggested  to  my 
friend  that  we  do  a  little  shopping,  for  I  needed  several  things, 
and  she  agreed  that  this  was  a  good  plan,  and  so  we  entered 
one  of  the  larger  establishments. 

4.  This  Circe  was  a  sorceress,  and  she  had  a  son  who  also 
had  magic  powers,  and  he  could  turn  the  head  of  one  who 
drank  of  his  liquor  into  the  head  of  a  wild  beast,  and  he  was 
roaming  about  in  the  woods  through  which  the  three  children 
must  pass. 

5.  Sabrina  threw  herself  into  a  stream,  and  the  sea  nymphs 
caught  her  and  carried  her  to  their  beautiful  palace,  and  there 
they  revived  her  and  changed  her  into  a  nymph,  and  she  be- 
came the  guardian  spirit  of  the  river  Severn,  and,  because  of 
her  own  early  misfortune,  she  was  always  kind  to  innocent 
maidens  in  distress. 

6.  The  storm  had  raged  for  full  three  hours;  and  the  lightning 
had  grown  fainter  and  less  frequent;  and  the  thunder,  from 
seeming  to  roll  and  break  above  their  heads,  had  gradually 
died  away  into  a  deep,  hoarse  murmur;  and  still  the  game  went 
on,  and  still  the  anxious  child  was  quite  forgotten. 


Combine  the  following  groups  into  single  sentences.     Use 
the  conjunction  and  sparingly. 


294  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

1.  She  rose  from  her  bed.  This  she  did  hastily.  She 
stepped  lightly  to  the  window. 

2.  A  robin  was  basking  himself  in  the  sun.  He  was  perched 
upon  the  top  of  a  mountain  ash.  The  ash  hung  its  clusters  of 
berries  just  before  my  window.     The  berries  were  red. 

3.  His  schoolhouse  was  a  low  building.  It  was  rudely 
constructed  of  logs.  It  contained  but  one  room.  The  room 
was  a  large  one.  The  windows  were  partly  glazed.  They 
were  partly  patched  with  leaves  from  old  copy-books. 

4.  A  lady  was  seen  approaching  the  castle.  She  was  at- 
tended by  a  cavalier.  She  was  mounted  on  a  palfrey.  The 
cavalier  was  on  horseback. 

5.  The  baron  followed  the  stranger  to  the  great  court  of  the 
castle.  There  the  charger  stood.  The  charger  was  pawing 
the  earth.     The  charger  was  black. 


Notice  the  following  pairs  of  sentences: 

This  tree,  which  was  a  tamarack,  towered  above  the  spruces. 
This  tree,  a  tamarack,  towered  above  the  spruces. 

This   tamarack,   which   was   tall   and   slender- tipped,   was   a 

favorite  with  the  Wilson  thrush. 
This  tamarack,  tall  and  slender- tipped,  was  a  favorite  with 

the  Wilson  thrush. 

In  the  first  pair,  the  clause  which  was  a  tamarack  and  the 
appositive  a  tamarack  are  equivalent  in  meaning.  In  the 
second  pair  the  clause  which  was  tall  and  slender-tipped  is 
the  equivalent  of  the  adjective  modifier  tall  and  slender- 
tipped.  The  adjectives,  it  will  be  noted,  are  placed  after 
the  noun  they  modify,  like  appositives. 

Keeping  these  examples  in  mindy  rewrite  the  following  sen- 
tences and  note  whether  the  change  is  an  improvement. 

1.  Mr.  Brown,  who  is  our  organist,  kindly  offered  to  provide 
music.  2.  The  train  was  approacliing  Worcester,  wliich  is  a 
thriving    manufacturing    city.      3.   The   story,    which    was   so 


DRILL  EXERCISES  295 

gloomy  in  the  opening  chapter,  soon  brightened  into  a  fasci- 
nating romance.  4.  Ruth  was  to  get  lunch  while  Tom  went 
for  the  mail,  which  was  a  very  satisfactory  arrangement.  5. 
Maidenhair,  which  is  the  most  beautiful  of  all  the  hardy  ferns, 
is  found  in  quantities  in  many  of  our  woods,  particularly  those 
which  cover  hillsides. 

6 

Notice  the  following  pairs  of  sentences: 

He  came  to  the  city  that  he  might  see  the  game. 
He  came  to  the  city  to  see  the  game. 

When  his  task  was  completed,  he  went  home. 
Having  completed  his  task,  he  went  home. 

Girls  who  whistle  do  not  always  meet  bad  ends. 
Whistling  girls  do  not  always  meet  bad  ends. 

In  the  first  pair  a  clause  and  an  infinitive  phrase  are  used  as 
equivalents,  in  the  second  a  clause  and  a  participial  phrase, 
in  the  third  a  clause  and  a  participle. 

Keeping  these  examples  in  mind,  rewrite  the  following  sen- 
tences and  note  whether  the  change  is  an  improvement. 

1.  Another  thing  that  should  be  guarded  against  is  hasty 
speech.  2.  The  room  is  a  large  one,  which  seats  fifty  pupils. 
3.  When  he  had  completed  the  regular  course,  he  decided  to 
remain  two  years  more.  4.  That  he  might  be  sure  there  was 
no  mistake,  he  counted  the  pennies  a  second  time.  5.  Soon  we 
noticed  a  house  that  had  seven  gables.  6.  It  was  a  disastrous 
fire,  and  the  loss  proved  to  be  twenty  thousand  dollars.  7. 
A  troop  of  children  ran  at  his  heels  and  hooted  after  him  and 
pointed  at  his  gray  beard.  8.  Farmers  who  have  produce 
that  they  wish  to  sell  are  among  the  first  who  arrive.  9.  Men 
who  labor  must  have  their  recreation.  10.  The  Duke,  who 
thought  the  fisherman  was  jesting,  agreed  that  he  would  give 
one  hundred  lashes  for  the  fish. 


290  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 


CHOICE  OF  WORDS 


"A  tank  had  been  coming  along  slowly  in  a  lumbering  way, 
crawling  over  the  interminable  succession  of  shell-craters, 
lurching  over  and  down  into  old  German  trenches,  nosing 
heavily  into  soft  earth  and  grunting  up  again,  and  sitting 
poised  on  broken  parapets  as  though  quite  winded  by  this 
exercise,  and  then  waddling  forward  in  the  wake  of  the 
infantry." 

Do  you  get  the  picture?  Read  the  sentence  again, 
letting  your  imagination  dwell  upon  the  words  italicized. 
They  are  not  at  all  the  ones  the  war  reporter  would  have 
used  had  he  been  describing  an  armored  motor-car  rushing 
to  the  front  over  a  smooth  roadway,  or  an  aeroplane  ma- 
neuvering half  a  mile  above  the  earth,  or  a  scout  creeping 
from  crater  to  crater  through  the  darkness  of  No  Man's 
Land.  They  are  appropriate  only  for  the  noisy,  clumsy, 
slow-moving  tank. 

Here  is  a  fragment  taken  almost  at  random  from  Neltje 
Blanchan's  Bird  Neighbors.     It  tells  of  the  waxwing. 

"Part  of  a  flock  that  has  lodged  in  a  tree  will  sit  almost 
motionless  for  hours  and  whisper  in  soft-hissing  twitterings^ 
very  much  as  a  company  of  Quaker  ladies,  similarly  dressed, 
might  sit  at  yearly  meetings.  Exquisitely  clothed  in  silky- 
gray  feathers  that  no  berry  juice  is  ever  permitted  to  stain, 
they  are  dainty^  gently  aristocratic-looking  birds,  a  trifle 
heavy  and  indolenty  perhaps,  when  walking  on  the  ground  or 
perching;  but  as  they  fly  in  compact  squads  above  the  tree 
tops,  their  flight  is  exceedingly  swift  and  graceful.** 

Even  though  one  has  never  seen  a  flock  of  these  "roving 
gypsies,"  the  two  sentences  give  him  an  unusually  clear 
picture.  In  part,  at  least,  the  clearness  is  due  to  the  care 
with  which  words  have  been  chosen.  Now  let  us  turn  to  a 
greater  master,  Rudyard  Kipling.  Here  is  a  passage  de- 
scribing the  way  in  which  Namgay  Doola  breaks  a  log- 


DRILL  EXERCISES  297 

• 
jam.     Do  you  not  envy  this  master's  ability  to  make  com- 
mon words  flash  pictures? 

"Namgay  Doola  had  scrambled  on  the  jam  and  was 
clawing  out  the  butt  of  a  log  with  a  rude  sort  of  a  boat-hook. 
It  slid  forward  slowly,  as  an  alligator  moves,  and  three  or 
four  others  followed  it.  The  green  water  spouted  through 
the  gaps.  Then  the  villagers  howled  and  shouted  and  leaped 
among  the  logs,  pulling  and  pushing  the  obstinate  timber, 
and  the  red  head  of  Namgay  Doola  was  chief  among  them 
all.  The  logs  swayed  and  chafed  and  groaned  as  fresh  con- 
signments from  up-stream  battered  the  now  weakening  dam. 
It  gave  way  at  last  in  a  smother  of  foam,  racing  butts,  bobbing 
black  heads,  and  a  confusion  indescribable,  and  the  river 
tossed  everything  before  it.  I  saw  the  red  head  go  down 
with  the  rest  of  the  jam  and  disappear  between  the  grinding 
tree  trunks.  It  rose  close  to  the  bank  and,  blowing  like  a 
grampus,  Namgay  Doola  wiped  the  water  out  of  his  eyes 
and  made  obeisance  to  the  king." 


Study  the  following  sentences.  Note  particularly  how  the 
verbs  {participles  included)  help  the  reader  to  see  and  hear. 
Let  your  imagination  dwell  upon  the  words  italicized. 

1.  The  maiden  stole  in  with  averted  eyes  and  tiptoed  to  the 
window. 

2.  Motor-cars  streaked  through  Belgian  streets,  dodging 
traffic. 

3.  The  birds  were  hopping  and  ttoittering  among  the  bushes, 
and  the  eagle  was  wheeling  aloft  and  breasting  the  pure  mountain 
breeze. 

4.  I  think  I  can  see  now  the  procession  of  them  between  the 
heights  of  Dix  and  Nipple  Top :  the  elk  and  the  moose  shambling 
along,  cropping  the  twigs;  the  heavy  bear  lounging  by  with 
his  exploring  nose;  the  frightened  deer  trembling  at  every  twig 
that  snapped  beneath  his  little  hoofs,  intent  on  the  lily-pads 


298  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

of  the  pond;  the  raccoon  and  the  hedge-hog,  sliding  along; 
and  the  velvet-footed  panther,  insouciant  and  conscienceless, 
scenting  the  path  with  a  curious  glow  in  his  eye,  or  crouching 
in  an  overhanging  tree  ready  to  drop  into  the  procession  at  the 
right  moment. 

5.  The  river  is  strewn  with  boulders,  big  and  little,  through 
which  the  amber  water  rushes  with  an  unceasing  thunderous 
roar,  now  plunging  down  in  white  falls,  then  svnrling  round 
in  dark  pools. 

6.  I  confess  these  stories,  for  a  time,  put  an  end  to  all  my 
fine  fancies.  The  storm  increased  with  the  night.  The  sea  was 
lashed  into  tremendous  confusion.  There  was  a  fearful,  sullen 
sound  of  rushing  waves  and  broken  surges.  Deep  called  unto 
deep.  At  times  the  black  volume  of  clouds  overhead  seemed 
rent  asunder  by  flashes  of  lightning  which  quivered  along  the 
foaming  billows,  and  made  succeeding  darkness  doubly  terrible. 
The  thunders  bellowed  over  the  wild  waste  of  waters,  and  were 
echoed  and  prolonged  by  the  mountain  waves.  As  I  saw  the 
ship  staggering  and  plunging  among  these  roaring  caverns, 
it  seemed  miraculous  that  she  regained  her  balance,  or  pre- 
served her  buoyancy.  Her  yards  would  dip  into  the  water; 
her  bow  was  almost  buried  beneath  the  waves.  Sometimes 
an  impending  surge  appeared  ready  to  overwhelm  her,  and  noth- 
ing but  a  dexterous  movement  of  the  helm  preserved  her  from 
the  shock. 

7.  Then,  one  day,  a  man  came  out  from  the  shore,  stcimming 
through  the  blue  water  with  great  splashes.  He  was  a  most 
charming  man,  who  spluttered  and  dove  and  twisted,  and  lay 
on  his  back  and  kicked  his  legs  in  excess  of  content  and 
delight. 

8.  His  niece  picked  up  the  handkerchief  and,  humming  to 
herself,  walked  back  across  the  fields. 


2 

Study  the  adverbs  and  adjectives  {participles  included)  in  the 
sentences  below,  noting  how  they  aid  the  imagination  in  seeing 
and  hearing. 


DRILL  EXERCISES  299 

1.  A  meadow  with  deey,  moist,  black  loam  or  mold,  with 
very  little  sand,  seems  to  be  most  attractive  to  the  snipe. 

2.  Outside  his  prison  lay  a  stretch  of  blinding  blue  water 
which  ended  in  a  line  of  breakers  and  a  yellow  coast  with  ragged 
palms. 

3.  Instead  of  the  twisted  hillside  oaks,  tall  cypress  trees, 
straighty  big-trunked  and  prosperous^  rose  from  the  damp, 
fat  soil. 

4.  The  family  always  came  to  church  *'en  prince."  They 
were  rolled  majestically  along  in  a  carriage  emblazoned  with  arms. 
The  crest  glittered  in  silver  radiance  from  every  part  of  the 
harness  where  a  crest  could  possibly  be  placed.  A  fat  coachman, 
in  a  three-cornered  hat,  richly  lacedy  and  a  flaxen  wig  curling 
close  round  his  rosy  face,  was  seated  on  the  box,  with  a  sleek 
Danish  dog  beside  him.  Two  footmen,  in  gorgeous  liveries, 
with  huge  bouquets  and  gold-headed  canes,  lolled  behind.  The 
carriage  rose  and  sank  on  its  long  springs  with  a  peculiar  state- 
liness  of  motion.  The  very  horses  champed  their  bits,  arched 
their  necks,  and  glanced  their  eyes  more  proudly  than  common 
horses,  either  because  they  had  caught  a  little  of  the  family 
feeling,  or  were  reined  up  more  tightly  than  ordinary. 

5.  It  [a  baby  owl]  is  a  little  round  ball  of  gray  fluff,  with  the 
quaintest,  wisest,  solemn  face. 

6.  He  saw  at  a  distance  the  lordly  Hudson,  far,  far  below 
him,  moving  on  its  silent  but  majestic  course,  with  the  reflection 
of  a  purple  cloud,  or  the  sail  of  a  lagging  bark,  here  and  there 
sleeping  on  the  glassy  bosom,  and  at  last  losing  itself  in  the  blue 
highlands. 

7.  On  nearer  approach  he  was  still  naore  surprised  at  the 
singularity  of  the  stranger's  appearance.  He  was  a  short, 
square-built  old  fellow,  with  thick  bushy  hair  and  a  grizzled 
beard.  His  dress  was  of  the  antique  Dutch  fashion  —  a  cloth 
jerkin  strapped  round  his  waist  —  several  pairs  of  breeches, 
the  outer  one  of  ample  volume,  decorated  with  rows  of  buttons 
down  the  sides,  and  bunches  at  the  knees. 

8.  He  wears  a  broad-brimmed,  low-crowned  hat;  a  huge  roll  of 
colored  handkerchief  about  his  neck,  knowingly  knotted  and 
tucked  in  at  the  bosom;  and  has  in  summer  time  a  large  bouquet 


300  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

of  jflowers  in  his  buttonhole,  the  present,  most  probably,  of 
some  enamored  country  lass. 

)  9.  The  smith,  with  the  horse's  heel  in  his  lap,  pauses  as  the 
vehicle  whirls  by;  the  cyelops  round  the  anvil  suspend  their 
ringing  hammers  and  suffer  the  iron  to  grow  cold;  and  the 
sooty  specter  in  brown  paper  cap,  laboring  at  the  bellows,  leans 
on  the  handle  for  a  moment,  and  permits  the  asthmatic  engine 
to  heave  a  long-drawn  sigh,  while  he  glares  through  the  murky 
smoke  and  sulphurous  gleams  of  the  smithy. 

10.  He  follow'd  through  a  lowly  archSd  way. 

Brushing  the  cobwebs  with  his  lofty  plume; 


He  found  him  in  a  little  moonlight  room. 
Pale,  latticed,  chill,  and  silent  as  a  tomb. 


3 

Pick  out  the  well-chosen  words.  Try  substituting  other 
expressions  for  these  words.  Try  omitting  some  of  them 
altogether. 

1.  The  transport  drove  through  the  empty  seas  with  a  heavy, 
clumsy  upheaval,  rolling  like  a  buoy. 

2.  The  night  had  closed  in  rain,  and  rolling  clouds  blotted 
out  the  lights  of  the  villages  in  the  valley. 

3.  It  [the  island]  is  separated  from  the  mainland  by  a  scarcely 
perceptible  creek,  oozing  its  way  through  a  wilderness  of  reeds 
and  slime,  a  favorite  resort  of  the  marsh-hen. 

4.  The  hollow  blast  of  wintry  wind  rushes  through  the  hall, 
claps  the  distant  door,  whistles  about  the  casement,  and  rumbles 
down  the  chimney. 

5.  No  signs  of  life  occurred  near  him  but  occasionally  the 
melancholy  chirp  of  a  cricket,  or  perhaps  the  guttural  twang 
of  a  bullfrog,  from  a  neighboring  marsh,  as  if  sleeping  uncom- 
fortably and  turning  suddenly  in  his  bed. 

6.  As  we  passed  through  the  neighboring  village  with  crack- 
ing of  whip  and  jingling  of  bells,  heads  popped  up  at  the  windows 


DRILL  EXERCISES  301 

to  stare,  and  the  only  living  thing  in  the  silent,  sunny  street 
was  a  melancholy  fowl  with  ruffled  feathers,  which  looked  at 
us  reproachfully  as  we  dashed  with  so  much  energy  over  the 
crackling  snow. 

7.  All  the  afternoon  Minora  has  moped. 

8.  The  teal  flies  with  terrific  speed.  In  the  fall  the  flocks 
frequent  the  wild  rice  marshes  along  the  borders  of  rivers. 
When  coming  in  to  alight,  they  seem  very  suspicious.  They 
sweep  up  and  down  the  river,  not  far  above  the  water,  as  if 
reconnoitering,  sometimes  quacking  as  if  in  alarm,  turning 
swiftly  in  concert,  rolling  from  side  to  side,  first  showing  the 
blue  of  their  wings  and  then  their  backs. 

9.  A  peep  through  one  of  the  shops  reveals  a  square  court 
within,  hung  with  many  lines  of  wet  clothes,  its  sides  hugged 
by  rotten  staircases  that  seem  vainly  trying  to  clamber  out  of 
the  rubbish. 

10.  The  garden,  with  its  muddy  walks,  and  the  chill,  drip- 
ping foliage  of  its  summer-house,  was  an  image  to  be  shuddered 
at.  Nothing  flourished  in  the  cold,  moist,  pitiless  atmosphere, 
drifting  with  the  brackish  scud  of  sea-breezes,  except  the  moss 
along  the  joints  of  the  shingle-roof,  and  the  great  bunch  of 
weeds  that  had  lately  been  suffering  from  drought,  in  the  angle 
between  the  two  front  gables. 

11.  As  she  trode  along  the  foot- worn  passages,  and  opened 
one  crazy  door  after  another,  and  ascended  the  creaking  stair- 
case, she  gazed  wistfully  and  fearfully  around. 

12.  The  moment  Wolf  entered  the  house  his  crest  fell,  his 
tail  drooped  to  the  ground  or  curled  between  his  legs;  he  sneaked 
about  with  a  gallows  look,  casting  many  a  sidelong  glance  at 
Dame  Van  Winkle,  and  at  the  least  flourish  of  a  broomstick 
or  ladle,  he  would  fly  to  the  door  with  yelping  precipitation. 

13.  Out  of  a  giant  tulip  tree 

A  great  gay  blossom  falls  on  me; 
Old  gold  and  fire  its  petals  are; 
It  flashes  like  a  falling  star. 
A  big  blue  heron  flying  by 
Looks  at  me  with  a  greedy  eye. 


302  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

A  bumblebee  with  mail  all  rust, 

His  thighs  puffed  out  with  anther  dust, 

Clasps  a  shrinking  bloom  about 

And  draws  her  amber  sweetness  out.  —  Thomson 

4 

Perform  as  many  of  the  following  tasks  as  the  instriLctor 
may  assign. 

1.  Make  a  list  of  verbs,  such  as  walks,  limps,  totters,  which 
might  be  used  in  describing  the  progress  of  a  person.  Having 
completed  the  list,  invent  sentences  in  which  your  words  are 
appropriately  used;  for  example.  He  strolled  down  the  lane. 
You  will  find  this  task  very  simple  if  you  first  imagine  a  number 
of  different  people  —  an  old  man,  a  little  girl,  a  soldier,  a  tramp, 
a  lady  of  fashion,  etc. 

2.  Make  a  similar  list  of  words,  such  as  slinks,  bounds,  gallops, 
used  in  describing  the  progress  of  animals.  Invent  sentences 
containing  the  words  appropriately  used;  for  example.  The  cat 
crept  toward  the  sparrow. 

3.  Think  of  words,  such  as  flows,  winds,  brawls,  which  might 
be  used  in  describing  the  progress  of  a  brook,  a  river,  a  rivulet, 
etc.  Invent  sentences  in  which  the  words  are  used  appro- 
priately; for  example,  Down  through  a  shaded  glen  brawls  a 
brook. 

4.  In  a  similar  way  invent  sentences  containing  such  words 
as  sighed  and  roared,  which  might  be  used  in  describing  the 
wind. 


COURSE  X 

COMPOSITION 

The  Paragraph 

Planning  compositions  by  paragraphs 
Developing  paragraphs  from  topical  sentences 

DRILL 

Spelling 

Difficult  yet  common  words 

Sentence  Revision 

Making  participial  reference  unmistakable 

Bringing  about  uniformity  in  person,  number,  tense,  etc. 

Unifying  terms  in  parallel  construction 

Choice  of  Words 
Synonyms 


THE  PARAGRAPH 

Let  us  imagine  that  we  are  examining  a  composition  en- 
titled Our  School.  It  contains,  we  find,  twenty-four  sen- 
tences, varying  in  length  yet  all  alike  in  that  each  tells 
something  about  the  school.  Examining  more  closely,  we 
observe  that  the  sentences  are  in  groups.  First  comes  a 
group  of  four.  Their  part  is  to  tell  of  the  school  building. 
Like  magicians  they  cause  the  structure  to  rise  before  us. 
We  see  its  location,  its  size  and  general  appearance,  the  ar- 
rangement of  its  rooms.  A  second  company  of  five  —  we 
may  think  of  them  as  portrait  painters  —  have  little  to  do 
with  the  building;  their  task  is  to  make  us  see  the  pupils 
and  teachers.  Then  follows  a  third  group,  the  members  of 
which  are  neither  magic  builders  nor  portrait  painters  but 
scholarly  workers,  who  explain  the  course  of  study  and  how 
recitations  are  conducted.  Gayer  than  these,  yet  tending 
strictly  to  their  task,  are  six  sentences  which  tell  of  various 
school  clubs  and  of  the  athletic  association.  Finally  we 
note  a  group  of  grave,  dignified  sentences,  only  three,  en- 
deavoring to  make  us  feel  the  importance  of  the  school  — 
its  great  work  in  offering  equal  advantages  to  all,  and  train- 
ing boys  and  girls  to  become  wholesome,  serviceable  men 
and  women. 

Examine  any  carefully  planned  composition  and  you 
will  find  the  sentences  thus  grouped,  each  group  distinct  in 
that  all  the  sentences  comprising  it  contribute  toward  some 
one  purpose  on  the  part  of  the  writer.  A  group  of  sentences 
thus  brought  together  to  accomplish  some  one  thing  is 
called  a  paragraph.     It  may  contain  many  words,  three  or 

305 


306  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

four  hundred  being  an  extreme  number,  or  it  may  contain 
but  few.  It  may  stand  alone,  as  it  is  often  found  in  news 
items  or  editorials,  or  it  may  form  part  of  a  longer  composi- 
tion. Sometimes,  though  rarely,  it  contains  but  one  sen- 
tence. The  paragraph  symbol  is  H,  but  this  is  seldom  used 
except  by  proofreaders.  The  common  way  of  indicating 
the  beginning  of  a  paragraph  is  by  means  of  indention. 
That  is,  the  first  line  begins  a  little  to  the  right  of  the  margin 
of  the  printed  page.  In  the  composition  that  we  have  been 
imagining,  there  would  be  five  indentions,  one  for  each 
group  of  sentences. 

EXERCISE  1 

Planning  by  paragraphs  —  that  is,  determining  how  many 
paragraphs  will  be  required  for  a  composition  on  a  given 
subject  and  what  each  paragraph  should  accomplish  —  is 
excellent  training  in  clear  thinking.  Here,  for  example,  is 
a  statement  of  the  plan  followed  in  the  composition  we  have 
been  considering: 

If  I  were  writing  a  short  composition  to  be  entitled  Our 
School,  I  should  plan  to  use  five  paragraphs.  I  should  have 
the  first  tell  about  the  school  building,  the  second  about  the 
teachers  and  pupils,  the  tliird  about  the  course  of  studies,  the 
fourth  about  the  various  clubs  and  the  athletic  association. 
In  the  fifth  I  should  try  to  impress  the  fact  that  the  school 
is  accomplishing  a  great  work. 

Here  are  two  more  such  plansy  prepared  by  pupils.  Which 
is  the  better?  Is  each  so  clear  that  you  could  use  it  if  you  were 
writing  a  composition?  Can  you  find  instances  where,  if  the 
plan  were  followed,  the  paragraphs  would  be  exceedingly  long? 
Do  you  note  any  slips  in  English,  sentences  which  need  careful 
revision? 

The  Building  of  Roads 

If  I  were  writing  an  exercise  on  The  Building  of  Roads,  I  should 
use  four  paragraphs.     In  the  first  I  should  describe  some  of  the 


THE  PARAGRAPH  307 

difiFerent  conditions  encountered  by  road  builders,  pointing  out 
the  general  difficulties  to  be  overcome.  In  the  next  paragraph  I 
should  consider  the  materials  required  for  good  roads  and  how  they 
are  built  up.  I  should  go  into  this  subject  in  detail,  describing 
each  and  every  individual  step,  giving  methods  and  reasons,  con- 
stituting in  all  quite  a  lengthy  paragraph.  At  this  point  I  should 
devote  a  paragraph  to  the  description  of  various  implements  and 
machines  employed  in  building  roads.  Lastly,  I  think  it  would 
be  well  to  add  a  paragraph  dealing  with  the  different  concerns  en- 
gaged in  road  building,  perhaps  giving  also  the  location  of  several 
roads  as  good  examples  of  each  concern's  work.  A  cross  section 
diagram  of  a  road-bed  should  accompany  the  sketch. 

The  Fire 

If  I  were  to  write  a  short  composition  entitled  The  Fire,  I  should 
plan  to  use  but  four  paragraphs.  I  should  call  the  first  paragraph 
The  Alarm.  In  it  I  should  tell  how  the  fire  bell  rang  out  on  the 
midnight  stillness,  how  that  horrible  "squealer"  and  the  clattering 
engines  went  hurrying  past,  and  how  the  people  rushed  from 
their  houses  and  started  after  the  engines.  The  second  paragraph 
I  should  name  The  Rescue,  and  in  it  tell  how  the  firemen  scaled 
the  high  ladders  and  dropped  half-fainting  men  and  women  down 
into  an  outstretched  net;  how  they  rushed  from  room  to  room 
through  the  dense  smoke  in  search  of  lives.  The  third  paragraph 
I  should  entitle  The  Fight,  and  in  it  tell  how  the  firemen  worked 
hard  all  night  pouring  on  water,  chopping  away  portions  of  the 
building,  and  rushing  here  and  there  trying  to  get  ahead  of  the 
devouring  blaze.  The  fourth  paragraph  I  should  call  The  Ruins, 
and  in  it  describe  the  looks  of  the  building  as  it  stood  up  against 
the  morning  skj'',  and  how  the  firemen  and  the  streets  looked  when 
the  fire  was  out. 

EXERCISE  2 

Make  a  brief  statement  of  the  probable  number  of  paragraphs 
you  would  require  if  you  were  writing  a  short  composition  on  a 
topic  suggested  by  the  list  found  below,  and  what  you  would  try 
to  make  each  paragraph  accomplish^ 


308  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

My  home.  Athletics  in  our  school.  My  summer  vacation. 
Winter.  Dogs.  A  busy  Saturday.  The  town  in  which  I  live. 
The  railroad  station.  My  best  friend.  Electric  signs.  Sub- 
marines. 

EXERCISE  3 

Invent  an  appropriate  title  for  each  paragraph  of  How  to 
Build  a  Camp  Fire,  page  118.  Try  to  make  each  title  give  a 
clear  idea  of  the  contents  of  the  paragraph  for  which  it  stands. 

A  carefully  constructed  paragraph  not  uncommonly 
begins  with  what  is  called  a  topical  sentence,  the  purpose 
of  which  is  to  let  the  reader  know  at  once  what  the  re- 
maining sentences  are  about.  It  is  like  the  sign  over  the 
merchant's  door,  informing  the  passer-by  what  wares  are  for 
sale  within.  Or  we  may  liken  it  to  a  promise.  If  you  read 
on,  it  seems  to  say,  I  promise  you  such  and  such  a  treat. 
Sometimes  it  prescribes  the  boundaries  beyond  which  the 
paragraph  will  not  extend.  Then  it  may  be  likened  to 
the  railway  ticket  which  names  the  stations  between 
which  the  passenger  is  entitled  to  travel.  Sometimes  it 
contains  in  brief  form  the  central  idea  of  the  entire  para- 
graph. But  its  nature  can  best  be  understood  through 
studying  a  few  examples. 

La^t  Saturday  I  spent  an  enjoyable  day  in  the  woods. 

Such  a  sentence  standing  first  in  a  paragraph  leads  us  to 
expect  that  the  rest  of  the  paragraph  will  furnish  particulars 
telling  what  made  the  day  enjoyable.  The  topical  sentence 
makes  a  general  statement;   the  others  furnish  details. 

When  he  was  dressed  in  his  masquerading  costume^  his 
appearance  was  ludicrous. 

Descriptive  details  are  here  called  for.  The  adjective 
ludicrous  leads  us  to  expect  them. 


THE  PARAGRAPH  309 

Through  industry  many  a  poor  boy  has  risen  to  fame. 

One  way  of  building  a  paragraph  beginning  with  such  a 
topical  sentence  would  be  by  the  addition  of  sentences 
telling  of  some  poor  boy  who  gained  fame  through  his  in- 
dustry, Lincoln's  life  story  might  be  briefly  told,  or  the 
life  of  some  other  man  used  as  an  example  or  illustration. 

/  was  completely  discouraged. 

The  rest  of  the  sentences  in  the  paragraph,  we  conclude 
at  once,  will  tell  what  caused  the  discouragement. 

By  chance  a  spark  flew  into  the  box  where  the  fireworks  were 
stored. 

Here  is  a  topic  sentence  containing  a  cause  —  a  spark 
coming  in  contact  with  inflammable  material.  Naturally 
the  remaining  sentences  will  tell  the  effect  —  what  happened 
because  of  this  unfortunate  circumstance. 

/  believe  the  soldier  is  innocent. 

Such  a  topical  sentence  naturally  calls  for  proof  to  support 
the  belief. 

/  will  now  explain  how  the  trick  was  performed. 

This  is  merely  a  promise.  We  know  that  the  sentences 
which  follow  will  do  what  the  first  sentence  promises. 

EXERCISE  4 

Imagine  fifteen  paragraphs,  each  growing  out  of  one  of 
the  following  topical  sentences.     What  is  each  paragraph  about? 

1.  The  castle  was  in  a  tumult  of  preparation  to  give  him 
a   suitable   welcome.      2.    The   mystery   was   soon   cleared   up. 

3.  English  travelers  are  the   best  and  the  worst  in  the  world. 

4.  On  entering  the  amphitheater,  he  was  still  more  surprised 
at  the  singularity  of  the  stranger's  appearance.  5.  After  turn- 
ing from  the  main  road  up  a  narrow  lane,  so  thickly  shaded  with 
forest  trees  as  to  give  it  a  complete  air  of  seclusion,  we  came  in 


310  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

sight  of  the  cottage.  6.  These  observations  call  to  mind  a 
little  domestic  story.  7.  Nothing  can  be  more  imposing  than 
the  magnificence  of  English  park  scenery.  8.  Supper  was 
announced  shortly  after  our  arrival.  9.  The  dance,  like  most 
dances  after  supper,  was  a  merry  one.  10.  I  leaned  against  a 
post  upon  the  dock  and  looked  around.  11.  Let  us  be  charitable 
toward  the  rich.  12.  My  wretchedly  poor  memory  has  placed 
me  many  a  trick.  13.  A  bird  in  the  hand  is  worth  two  in  the 
bush.     14.    Let  us  compare  the  two.      15.    At  last  we  were  off! 

EXERCISE  5 

Select  one  of  the  sentences  found  below  and  develop  from  it  a 
long  paragraph  by  adding  particulars  or  details. 

1.  Last  Saturday  was  for  me  an  unusually  busy  day.  {Busy 
is  the  key  word;  the  one  thing  required  is  that  you  show  how 
busy  you  were.  Through  incident  after  incident,  real  or  imagi- 
nary, try  hard  to  show  that  you  were  busy,  busy,  busy  —  ever 
so  busy.  Throw  in  phrases  here  and  there  to  help  the  reader 
to  keep  track  of  the  time.) 

2.  Then  a  number  of  things  happened  in  quick  succession. 
(Do  not  stop  to  explain  what  led  up  to  the  happenings;  take  it 
for  granted  that  the  reader  knows  the  circumstances.  Simply 
tell  of  real  or  imaginary  happenings,  ever  bearing  in  mind  that 
you  must  impress  upon  the  reader  that  tlie  events  came  in 
quick  succession.) 

3.  For  the  next  two  hours  we  ivere  busy  children.  (Confine 
your  efforts  strictly  to  the  task  which  the  topic  sentence  im- 
poses, a  statement  of  what  the  children  did.  Yet  the  paragraph 
should  do  more  than  furnish  a  mere  list;  it  should  make  the 
reader  see  what  was  done.  To  make  the  reader  see  distinctly, 
many  details — picture-giving  details  —  will  be  necessary.) 

4.  The  last  half  of  the  ninth  inning,  iirith  the  score  a  tie,  was 
most  exciting.  (Remember  that  you  have  but  a  single  para- 
graph in  which  to  tell  the  story.  Remember,  too,  that  to 
justify  the  expression  most  exciting  you  must  in  some  way  make 
the  reader  feel  the  emotions  felt  by  players  and  spectators, 
make  him  realize  the  ways  in  which  excitement  was  shown.) 


THE  PARAGRAPH  311 


EXERCISE  6 

Select  one  of  the  sentences  given  below  and  develop  from  it  a 
long  paragraph  by  adding  descriptive  details. 

1.  The  room  was  prettily  decorated.  (It  may  be  any  room  that 
you  please,  decorated  for  any  gala  occasion  that  you  please. 
The  one  thing  to  bear  in  mind  is  that  the  sole  purpose  of  the 
paragraph  is  to  picture  the  room  in  such  a  way  as  to  show  that 
it  was  prettily  decorated.  Work  out  a  sequence  plan  before 
beginning  to  write.  How  would  it  do  to  start  with  a  general 
description  giving  the  impression  that  the  room  might  make  at 
a  first  glance,  then  proceed  to  details,  then  return  to  a  general 
description  recording  the  final  impression  —  the  effect  of  the 
whole?) 

2.  Evidently  this  room  was  a  boy's  workshop.  {Evidently^ 
the  topic  sentence  says;  hence  the  rest  of  the  paragraph  must 
contain  the  evidence.  Be  orderly  in  your  description;  make 
sure  that  the  reader  sees  each  object  described  and  where  it  is 
located.  Do  not  forget  that  it  is  a  boy's  workshop,  not  a 
man's.) 

3.  He  was  a  sight  to  behold.  (Notice  that  it  is  unnecessary  to 
tell  who  he  is  or  what  has  happened  to  him.  Merely  a  portrait 
is  called  for,  complete  through  many  carefully  chosen  details, 
each  detail  justifying  the  words  sight  to  behold.  Yet  it  would 
be  possible  to  make  the  portrait  such  that  the  reader  may  easily 
infer  that  the  person  is  a  tramp,  a  football  player,  a  chauffeur, 
or  a  small  boy  fresh  from  a  fall  into  a  ditch.) 

4.  He  had  been  a  naughty  dog  and  his  appearance  and  actions 
showed  that  he  knew  it.  (Do  not  tell  what  he  had  done;  confine 
yourself  closely  to  appearance  and  actions.) 

EXERCISE  7 

Here  is  a  paragraph  in  which  the  topical  sentence  introduces 
picture-giving  details  of  action.  Read  it,  then  develop  a  simi- 
lar paragraph  from,  one  of  the  italicized  sentences  found  below. 
Pay  close  attention  to  unity. 


312  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

Crawling  Under 

Johnny  decided  to  crawl  under.  He  carefully  drew  oflF  his 
coat  and  threw  it  on  the  grass.  Slowly  bending,  he  dropped 
stiffly  on  one  knee,  allowing  his  other  foot  to  remain  on  the 
ground.  While  thus  endeavoring  to  balance  himself  in  this 
awkward  position,  he  stopped  to  roll  up  his  sleeves,  but  fell 
over  on  one  side,  striking  his  head  on  a  projecting  board. 
He  rose  hastily,  brushed  himself  off,  finished  the  task  of  rolling 
up  his  sleeves,  and  finally  knelt  on  both  knees  at  once.  When 
he  had  placed  his  two  hands  firmly  on  the  ground,  he  began 
to  move  forward  v/ith  extreme  caution  and  stealth,  all  the 
while  looking  swiftly  about  as  if  to  make  sure  he  was  not  being 
watched.  Evidently  satisfied,  he  next  ran  his  head  through 
the  narrow  opening  and  crawling  forward  attempted  to  draw 
the  rest  of  his  body  through  the  hole.  Alas  he  was  stuck! 
His  shoulders,  refusing  to  move,  remained  tightly  wedged  be- 
tween the  ground  and  the  upper  board.  Johnnie  wriggled  and 
twisted  for  several  seconds  but  failed  to  produce  any  effect 
whatever.  At  last,  very  much  heated  and  thoroughly  frightened 
lest  he  should  be  forced  to  remain  in  so  uncomfortable  a  position, 
he  gave  one  final  jerk  and  found  himself  sprawling  on  damp 
earth  under  a  rather  low  veranda. 

1.  Crack!  went  the  pistol  and  they  were  off.  (Let  the  contest 
be  what  you  will,  but  try  to  make  the  reader  see  the  contestants 
and  feel  the  intensity  of  the  struggle.) 

2.  To  pass  through  that  room  without  arousing  the  sleeping 
household  was  seemingly  impossible,  hut  it  was  his  only  chance  and 
he  resolved  to  try.  (Imagine  the  circumstances,  but  do  not  give 
them.  Confine  yourself  to  the  catlike  actions  of  the  —  was  it 
a  thief.?) 

3.  What  pains  he  took.  (Let  the  person  concerned  be  doing 
what  you  please,  but  justify,  by  a  series  of  picture  details, 
the  Word  pains.) 

4.  Johnny  decided  to  climb  over.  (Let  him  climb  over  what 
you  please,  but  watch  him  as  a  cat  watches  a  bird,  that  no 
movement  of  his  little  body  escape  you.) 


THE  PARAGRAPH  313 

5.  The  whistle  blew  announcing  that  the  great  game  was  over; 
then  followed  'pandemonium.  (This  is  a  diflScult  task,  for  doubt- 
less, as  you  will  imagine  the  scene,  much  will  happen  all  at  once. 
Do  your  best,  through  imagination  using  eyes  and  ears.) 

6.  At  that  important  moment  a  spark  flew  into  the  box  where 
Tommy  had  stored  his  fireworks. 

EXERCISE  8 

Develop  a  descriptive  paragraph  from  one  of  the  following 
sentences: 

1.  It  was  a  scene  long  to  be  remembered.  2.  The  room  had 
such  a  cozy  appearance.  3.  Down  the  street  came  the  post- 
man. 4.  One  costume  in  particular  caught  my  eye.  5.  It 
was  a  cheerless  room.  6.  The  harbor  was  alive.  7.  What  a 
busy  place  is  the  railroad  station.  8.  Have  you  ever  watched 
dawn  brighten  into  day.'^  9.  A  glance  was  enough  to  show  that 
the  room  was  occupied  by  a  boy.  10.  What  is  more  pathetic  than 
a  deserted  farmhouse.     11.   Poor  old  Fido! 

Before  attempting  this  exercise,  it  may  be  well  to  read  the 
following  paragraph,  written  by  a  high  school  Junior. 


Bliss 

He  had  been  told  to  keep  himself  tidy,  but  by  the  time  the 
guests  had  arrived  you  should  have  seen  him.  His  hair  was  mussed 
and  snarled  as  if  he  had  just  been  asleep.  Around  his  mouth  was 
a  wide  circle  of  dark  red  jam.  His  eyes  were  red  and  dirty,  for 
evidently  he  had  rubbed  them  with  his  far  from  clean  hands.  His 
little  white  blouse  was  a  sight.  Up  and  down  the  front  of  it  were 
smears  of  jam  mixed  with  sand  from  the  back  yard.  Across  his 
bloomers  were  dirty  finger  marks  where  he  had  carefully  wiped 
his  sticky  hands.  His  belt  was  gone,  and  his  tie  was  hanging 
from  his  shoulder.  His  little  blue  socks  were  wrinkled  down 
around  his  ankles.  On  one  foot  there  was  what  had  once  been  a 
white,  but  now  was  a  gray,  buckskin  slipper.     In  his  hand  he  held 


314  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

what  there  was  left  of  the  other.  It  looked  as  if  the  fat  Httle  brin- 
dle  puppy,  which  he  held  in  his  other  arm,  had  had  a  great  deal  of 
pleasure  out  of  it.  The  little  fellow  stood  on  one  foot,  digging 
his  slipperless  toe  into  the  thick  velvet  rug  in  his  mother's  parlor 
before  the  newly  arrived  guests,  the  remains  of  his  little  shoe 
clasped  in  his  hand  behind  him,  the  wriggling  puppy  hugged  tight 
in  his  arm,  and  a  broad  smile  on  his  dirty  little  face. 


EXERCISE  9 

Develop  from  one  of  the  following  sentences  a  paragraph 
that  shall  form  a  climax. 

1.  All  that  could  he  seen  at  first  was  a  thin  wreath  of  smoke. 
(Beginning  with  the  wreath  of  smoke,  kindle,  gradually  yet 
swiftly,  a  conflagration.  Do  not  let  explanation  intrude; 
merely  give  picture  after  picture  till  destructive  flames  are 
roaring.  Skill  will  be  required  not  alone  in  selecting  descriptive 
adjectives  and  verbs  but  in  supplying  unobtrusive  time  and 
place  guides.) 

2.  How  gradually  the  town  wakes  up.  (Begin  with  the  first 
sounds  of  early  morning  and  follow  the  waking  up  process  till 
the  streets  are  thronged  and  the  roar  of  industry  is  at  its  height. 
The  success  of  the  paragraph  will  depend  in  part  on  your 
ability  to  make  the  reader  see  and  hear,  in  part  on  your  ability 
to  work  up  gradually,  yet  with  increasing  rapidity,  to  a  strong 
climax.) 

3.  Suddenly  the  stillness  was  broken  by  a  titter  —  a  very  little 
one,  far  back  in  the  room,  but  contagious.  (Tell,  without  explain- 
ing the  cause  of  the  merriment,  how  the  titter  developed  a 
roomful  of  unchecked  laughter.) 

4.  Hark!  (Describe  the  oncoming  of  a  band  of  music,  from 
the  first  faint  sound.) 

5.  Little  Tommy's  mouth  began  to  show  signs  of  puckering. 
(Pass  from  pucker  to  roar,  with  its  usual  accompaniment  of 
tears.) 

6.  The  storm  came  on  gradually. 


THE  PARAGRAPH  315 

EXERCISE  10 

In  a  single  carefully  planned  paragraph,  describe  as  ac- 
curately as  you  can  the  picture  found  facing  page  181.  Begin 
with  a  topical  sentence. 

EXERCISE  11 

A  paragraph  may  he  perfect,  yet  he  feeble  through  lack  of 
intensity.  Frequently  it  takes  bloio  upon  blow  to  make  an  im- 
pression. In  developing  a  paragraph  from  one  of  the  following 
sentences,  concentrate  all  your  energy  upon  forcing  the  reader 
to  experience  the  sensations  you  wish  him  to  experience. 

1.  How  it  did  pour!  (Make  the  reader  hear  the  rain,  see  it, 
feel  it.     Drench  him!) 

2.  Of  all  the  things  I  dislike  to  do,  the  worst  is  cleaning  out  the 
cellar.  (For  cleaning  out  the  cellar  you  may  substitute  writing 
a  composition,  making  a  polite  call,  or  what  you  please.  The 
one  thing  essential  is  that  you  make  the  reader,  through  sym- 
pathetic imagination,  experience  the  disagreeable  sensations 
that  you  have  experienced.) 

3.  Such  a  dinner!  (Describe  the  dinner  in  such  a  way  as 
to  tantalize  the  reader.) 

4.  I  was  thoroughly  frightened.  (Give  your  sensations  in 
such  a  way  as  to  justify  the  word  thoroughly.) 

5.  You  should  have  seen  me  as  I  appeared  when  they  fished  me 
out  of  that  pool.     (Make  the  picture  vivid.) 

6.  The  box  in  which  my  new  spring  hat  had  just  come  from  the 
milliner'' s  lay  open  on  the  floor,  while  in  a  corner  of  the 
room  the  puppy  was  worrying  some  shapeless  object.  (Describe 
the  object.) 

EXERCISE  12 

Here  are  two  compositions  in  which  contrast  is  used.  In 
the  first  the  contrast  is  between  two  pictures  taken  from 


316  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

Coleridge's  Ancient  Mariner^  a  story  which  you  may  have 
read.  In  the  second  it  is  between  two  moods.  Which  is 
the  better  composition? 

1.  Two  Pictures 


It  is  just  before  sunrise.  A  large  ship  is  sailing  slowly  out  of  a 
harbor  in  Scotland.  The  villagers  at  the  dock  give  a  faint  cheer 
in  farewell,  which  is  answered  by  the  lusty  voices  of  the  crew  of 
two  hundred  men.  It  is  a  pretty  sight,  the  bright  new  sails  of 
the  stately  ship  reflected  in  the  clear  water  of  the  bay,  the  little 
church  perched  on  the  hill,  the  lighthouse  on  the  bar,  and,  beyond, 
the  eastern  sky  growing  brighter  and  brighter  as  the  sun  is  about 
to  peep  above  the  horizon.  The  ship  glides  along  smoothly,  the 
bow  making  a  mellow  gurgling  sound  as  it  cuts  the  water.  Soon 
the  ship  rounds  the  point  and  passes  the  lighthouse.  Now  the  sun 
rises  and  shines  brightly  across  the  ocean.  At  the  same  time  the 
ship  catches  the  full  force  of  the  wind,  the  sails  fill,  and  she  leaps 
forward  on  her  long  voyage. 

II 

It  is  high  noon  at  the  equator  in  the  Pacific  ocean.  The  sky  is 
copper  colored,  and  the  air  is  oppressively  hot  and  heavj%  as  there 
is  not  a  breath  of  wind.  The  red  sun  stands  right  up  above  the 
mast  of  the  ship,  and  appears  to  be  no  bigger  than  the  moon.  The 
long,  even  roll  of  the  mighty  ocean  lifts  and  lowers  the  ship  gently 
and  gradually,  and  causes  the  thin,  weather-beaten  sails  to  sway 
back  and  forth  with  a  slow,  lifeless  motion.  The  dead  silence  of 
the  sea  is  broken  only  by  the  subdued  voices  of  the  crew,  which 
but  serve  to  make  the  awful  stillness  more  pronounced. 

2.  Before  and  After 

April  9.  —  Oh,  I  am  so  tired  today.  I  came  down  to  breakfast, 
and  afterwards  I  must  have  walked  quite  half  a  mile.     I  suppose 


THE  PARAGRAPH  317 

I  ought  to  take  an  egg,  but  somehow  I  don't  want  one.  No,  I 
do  not  know  where  your  hat  is,  George.  Find  it  yourself.  By 
the  bye,  George,  get  me  that  book  I  was  reading.  I  don't  know 
where  it  is.  Oh,  you  have  plenty  of  time,  for  it  is  only  ten  minutes 
past  one.  After  all,  what  does  it  matter  if  you  are  a  little  late  to 
school.'^  Everybody  seems  to  be  going  to  school.  I  wish  I  were. 
I  wish  I  could  even  go  to  the  grammar  school;  anything  would 
be  better  than  doing  nothing.  The  doctor  is  horrid  not  to  let  me 
go.  If  I  ever  do  go,  I  shall  be  older  than  every  one  else.  No,  I 
do  not  want  an  egg-nog;  a  raw  egg  goes  down  more  easily.  Well, 
I  might  as  well  try  to  finish  this  book. 

November  9.  —  Mother,  have  you  seen  my  gloves?  They 
are  not  with  my  coat  and  hat.  Oh,  yes,  here  they  are  in  my  muff. 
Now  I  can't  find  my  hat-pins.  Never  mind;  I  have  not  time  to 
look  for  them.  Is  breakfast  never  to  be  ready .^^  I  am  sure  I  shall 
be  late  if  it  is  not  ready.  Need  I  eat  an  egg?  There  is  not  time 
to  eat  an  egg  and  porridge  too.  Very  well,  I  will.  I  am  afraid  I 
shall  not  know  my  French.  I  only  read  it  over.  Is  "  J'ai  tombe" 
correct,  or  is  "Je  suis  tombe"?  Oh,  yes,  of  course;  I  remember 
now.  I  can't  eat  any  more,  truly.  Now  where  are  my  books? 
Bother!  I  forgot  to  sharpen  those  pencils.  I  shall  have  to  do  it 
at  school.  By  the  bye,  which  should  one  say,  "will  I"  or  "shall 
I"?  I  am  sure  that  clock  is  slow.  It  must  be  more  than  five 
minutes  past  eight.  Won't  it  be  fun  today,  for  I  have  five  recita- 
tions instead  of  three!  I  hope  I  shan't  be  late.  Good-bye.  Good- 
bye. 

Write  a  composition  of  two  paragraphs  to  which  you  can 
give  the  title  A  Contrast.  Make  the  contrast  sharp  by  giving 
many  picture-bringing  details.     Here  are  suggestions: 

1.  A  meal  in  the  woods  and  a  dinner  at  home.  2.  Two 
back  yards  not  a  bit  alike.  3.  A  city  street  at  6  a.m.  and  at 
C  P.M.  4.  A  book  fresh  from  the  library  and  the  same  book 
many  years  after.  5.  The  oak  tree  and  the  violet.  6.  The 
ball  field  during  and  after  a  great  game.  7.  A  clerk  whom  I 
like  to  trade  with  and  one  whom  I  avoid.  8.  Before  and  after 
the  fire.     9.    Before  and  after  the  battle.     10.    My  party  gown 


818  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

before  and  after  being  caught  in  a  summer  shower.  11.  How 
I  thought  it  would  look  and  taste,  and  how  it  actually  did. 
12.  Company  manners  and  the  other  sort.  13.  Before  and 
after  the  storm.    14.    Noon,  midnight. 


DRILL  EXERCISES 


SPELLING 


Here  is  a  list  of  common  words  that  are,  for  one  reason  or 
another,  hard  to  spell.  If  you  can  spell  every  one  correctly,  you 
have  just  cause  for  feeling  proud. 


queer 

eighth 

muscle 

height 

mystery 

retail 

therefore 

breadth 

business 

marriage 

crystal 

persevere 

carriage 

scheme 

convenient 

career 

twelfth 

cylinder 

secrecy 

cashier 

hindrance 

courteous 

fiery 

label 

intelligence 

shrivel 

parliament 

mucilage 

sulphur 

remembrance 

miscellaneous 

paralyze 

Here  are  thirty-two  hard  yet  common  words, 
strength.     Can  you  spell  all  of  them  correctly? 


Try  your 


hygiene 

clothier 

crescent 

discreet 

pneumonia 

tassel 

sovereign 

kerosene 

enthusiasm 

fascinate 

discipline 

scythe 

abscess 

assassin 

Grecian 

unanimous 

synonym 

inaugurate 

mischievous 

pioneer 

ascertain 

precipice 

liquor 

lien 

hypocrite 

hypocrisy 

acknowledge 

accumulate 

develops 

development 

analyze 

analysis 

319 


3^  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

SENTENCE    REVISION 


In  the  sentence  Winding  in  and  out  between  beautiful 
banksy  many  an  exclamation  fell  from  our  lips,  the  participle 
winding  seems  to  modify  exclamation.  The  sentence  might 
better  read,  As  we  wound  in  and  out  between  beautiful  banks, 
many  an  exclamation  fell  from  our  lips.  In  the  sentence 
Tins  should  be  washed  in  hot,  soapy  water,  taking  especial 
care  of  seams  and  corners,  what  does  the  phrase  taking 
especial  care  of  seams  and  corners  modify?  It  cannot 
modify  tins,  nor  water.  It  must  go  with  some  word  not 
expressed,  a  subject  which  the  writer  has  in  mind  and  to 
which  he  has  shifted  unintentionally.  Here  is  a  better  way 
of  expressing  the  same  thing:  Tins  should  be  washed  in  hot, 
soapy  watery  especial  care  being  taken  of  seams  and  corners. 

Remodel  the  following  sentences,  paying  particular  attention 
to  the  participial  phrases. 

1.    Clinging   to   the   organ-grinder's   arm,   I   saw   a   monkey. 

2.  Determined  to  go,  we  could  not  persuade  him  to  remain. 

3.  Hiding  in  the  dark  corner  of  the  woodshed,  they  could  not 
find  us.  4.  Getting  up  early  in  the  morning,  the  first  thing 
noticeable  is  the  freshness  of  the  air.  5.  Up  to  last  Saturday 
the  team's  record  was  clear,  having  scored  eight  consecutive 
victories.  6.  The  town  is  eight  miles  from  any  railway;  located 
in  the  heart  of  the  Berkshire  hills,  the  scenery  is  unsurpassed. 
7.  After  trying  to  get  away  from  me  several  times,  I  finally 
got  the  cattle  home.  8.  Being  nearly  exhausted,  we  who  were 
comparatively  fresh  carried  him  to  our  camp,  using  an  impro- 
vised stretcher.  9.  The  behavior  of  the  boys  can  hanlly  be 
excused,  refusing  to  help  the  old  man  when  he  cried  out  to  them. 
10.  The  solution  of  the  problem  is  not  difficult,  being  nothing 
more  than  an  example  in  simple  addition.  11.  A  bed  can  be 
made  without  difficulty,  using  hemlock  boughs  and  spreading 
them  evenly  over  the  ground. 


DRILL   EXERCISES  321 


Rewrite  the  following  sentences  in  such  a  way  as  to  bring 
about  uniformity  in  person,  number,  and  gender. 

1.  He  saw  the  trout  as  it  lay  near  the  bottom  of  the  stream, 
and  soon  had  him  in  his  basket.  2.  In  some  places  the  hills 
seem  to  close  in  on  the  winding  stream,  and  one  almost  wonders 
which  way  to  paddle;  but  soon  you  round  some  bend  and  the 
broad  expanse  of  the  river  is  again  seen.  3.  The  yacht  gave 
its  owner  a  feeling  of  intense  pride  as  she  crept  ahead  of  her 
competitors.  4.  When  a  boy  is  going  to  a  ball  game,  he  will 
use  every  means  to  be  there  on  time;  so  why  is  it  that  they 
do  not  take  the  same  pains  not  to  be  late  to  school.'^  5.  After 
dinner  each  was  conducted  to  their  room.  6.  The  mob  meets 
Cinna  the  poet  and,  merely  because  he  bears  the  name  of  one 
of  the  conspirators,  put  him  to  death.  7.  Each  play  is  recorded 
on  the  bulletin  board  precisely  as  they  are  made  on  the  football 
field.  8.  Football  gives  one  an  opportunity  of  making  a  man 
of  himself,  and  of  learning  not  to  be  afraid  because  a  fellow 
is  bigger  than  you  are.  9.  Boys  that  are  physically  strong  and 
who  are  willing  to  work  are  sure  of  employment.  10.  She 
foolishly  believes  that  if  one  doesn't  wear  a  precious  stone 
appropriate  to  the  month  of  your  birth,  they  will  have  bad  luck. 


Revise  these  sentences,  bringing  about  uniformity  in  voice, 
mood,  and  tense. 

1.  As  they  entered  the  building,  Mary  says  laughingly  to 
Edith,  "Well,  sister,  I  presume  you  have  forgotten  your  tickets 
as  usual."  2.  After  this  the  mixture  is  stirred  constantly  until 
it  becomes  smooth;  then  cook  it  a  few  minutes  and  serve  on 
dry  toast  or  crackers.  3.  No  sooner  had  the  baggage  been 
taken  from  the  launch  and  the  tables  ivere  set  than  a  terrible 
rumbling  was  heard.  4.  The  colonists  were  descendants  of 
the  English  and  have  English  conceptions  of  liberty.  5.  If 
this  plan  is  adopted,  it   would  result  in  a  great  deal  of  con- 


322  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

fusion.  6.  If  final  y  is  preceded  by  a  consonant,  change  the  y 
to  i  before  a  suffix  beginning  with  i;  otherwise  it  does  not 
change,  7.  He  was  unable  to  remain  longer  at  the  table,  for 
his  conscience  rebukes  him.  8.  No  sooner  had  we  reached  the 
house  and  began  to  feel  at  home  than  the  order  came  to  pack 
for  another  long  journey.  9.  When  hunting  is  allowed,  it  is 
dangerous  for  a  farmer  to  enter  his  own  woods  during  the  open 
season  for  fear  he  might  be  shot  by  a  hunter  who  thought  he  saw 
a  deer. 


Rewrite  the  following  sentenceSy  unifying  the  terms  that  are 
in  parallel  construction. 

1.  These  garments  are  popular  for  three  reasons:  first, 
they  are  exceedingly  becoming;  second,  their  light  weight; 
third,  for  their  warmth.  2.  In  speaking  of  Round  Pond  he 
begins  by  telling  where  it  is;  second,  we  are  told  how  to  reach 
it;  third,  he  names  the  families  that  make  up  the  summer 
colony;  fourth,  the  good  times  at  Round  Pond;  fifth,  certain 
unpleasant  features  are  mentioned.  3.  We  do  cleaning,  press- 
ing, dyeing,  repairing,  also  men's  suits  made  to  order.  4.  I 
don't  suppose  I  shall  ever  be  nominated  for  presidency,  gov- 
ernor, or  even  mayor.  5.  His  good  traits  are  determination, 
faithfulness,  generous,  and  honesty.  6.  Some  have  not  yet 
decided  whether  they  will  go  to  college  or  to  stay  at  home. 
7.  Some  went  in  carriages,  others  on  bicycles,  and  still  others 
who  went  by  train.  8.  On  close  examination  you  will  find  the 
negative  losing  its  fogginess  and  become  clear. 


CHOICE   OF  WORDS 

1 
Which  of  the  terms  in  parenthesis  do  you  approve? 

1.    He  always   (stays,   puts  up,   stops)   at  the   Murray   Hill 
hotel.     2.   I  am  sorry  to  disappoint  you,  but  I  have  (a  date. 


DRILL   EXERCISES  323 

an  appointment,  an  engagement)  with  a  (party,  man,  person) 
at  five  o'clock.  3.  I  wish  you  would  (take,  bring)  this  little 
(package,  parcel,  bundle)  to  your  mother  when  you  go  home. 
4.  When  Tom  knocked  out  a  three-bagger,  the  (audience, 
crowd,  spectators)  went  wild.  5.  That  (learned,  taught) 
him  not  to  play  with  matches.  6.  (Leave,  let)  go.  Bill!  7. 
I  (reckon,  calculate,  think)  we  shall  arrive  by  eight.  8.  He's 
(awfully,  extremely,  unusually,  exceedingly)  clever.  9.  Arthur 
is  the  (smartest,  brightest,  cleverest)  of  all  the  (pupils,  students, 
scholars)  in  our  school.  10.  At  first  the  (audience,  spectators) 
seemed  restless,  but  the  play  improved  and  soon  there  was 
breathless  attention. 


Form  a  group  of  synonyms  about  each  of  the  following  words, 
and  try  to  show  what  shade  of  meaning  each  word  contains. 
This  exercise  and  the  next  two  are  approjyriate  for  class  com- 
petition. 


look 

call 

hit 

eat 

like 

annoy 

take 

get 

strike 

help 

coax 

speak 

8 

Form  a  group  of  synonyms  about  each  of  the  following  words: 


happy 

little 

stingy 

brave 

lazy 

poor 

timid 

cold 

sad 

faithful 

big 

pretty 

Building  is  a  general  word.  It  might  be  applied  to  at  least 
a  score  of  different  kinds  of  structures.  We  think  at  once  of 
such  terms  as  house,  cottage,  tenement,  shanty.  How  many 
other  terms  can  you  think  of,  no  two  bringing  to  mind  the  same 
kind  of  building? 


324  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

Form  groups  about  the  follomng  terms: 

boy  laborer  street  stream 

job  entertainment  lie  work 


Study  the  following  groups,  dwelling  upon  each  word  till 
you  see  precisely  what  it  means.  If  you  find  yourself  in 
doubt,  consult  a  dictionary. 

1.  Fine,  dainty,  tidy,  trim,  exquisite 

2.  Ignorant,  uneducated,  misinformed,  illiterate 

3.  Clever,  bright,  gifted,  capable,  shrewd,  cunning 

4.  Nice,  splendid,  delightful,  elegant 

5.  Sweet,  affectionate,  kind,  gentle,  amiable 

6.  Fierce,  wild,  furious,  ferocious 

7.  Silly,  foolish,  ridiculous,  absurd,  stupid 

8.  Polite,  courteous,  well-bred,  tactful,  gentlemanly 

9.  Awful,  dreadful,  terrible,  frightful 

6 

Bring  to  class  five  sentences,  prose  or  poetry,  found  where  you 
will,  containing  words  that  you  think  are  well  chosen,  either  be- 
cause they  bring  to  mind  a  picture,  or  because  they  express  a 
meaning  very  definitely. 

7 

Run  through  the  best  composition  you  hare  written  thus  far 
and  try  to  find  places  where,  by  inserting  an  adjective  or  an  ad- 
verb, or  by  substituting  a  picture-bringing  word  for  one  that 
brings  no  picture,  you  might  improve  the  composition. 


Exchange  compositions  with  a  classmate.  Try  to  find 
words  or  phrases  that  are  inexact.  That  is,  find  places  where 
the  meaning  is  not  clear,  or  not  quite  what  the  writer  intended  to 
convey. 


PART   TWO 

GRAMMAR 
WITH  ATTENTION  DIRECTED  TO  COMMON  ERRORS 


I 

THE  EIGHT  PARTS  OF  SPEECH 

The  dictionary  considers  words  one  at  a  time,  telling  what 
each  means,  how  it  is  pronounced,  and  how  it  is  spelled.  It 
is  the  first  of  the  great  law  books  of  language,  for  it  states 
definitely  how  we  must  treat  words  if  we  wish  to  be  classed 
with  language-respecting  people.  But  words  are  feeble 
things  until  they  are  arranged  in  groups  and  set  to  work. 
In  this  respect  they  resemble  the  parts  of  a  machine,  for 
example  an  aeroplane,  which  must  be  put  together  with 
care,  each  part  fitted  in  its  place,  before  the  machine  be- 
comes serviceable.  Grammar  tells  how  these  groups  are 
formed  and  what  changes  words  undergo  when  they  are 
brought  together  for  various  kinds  of  group  service.  It 
may  be  called  the  second  great  law  book.  Language-re- 
specting people  obey  its  rules. 

The  simplest  word-group  making  complete  sense  is  the 
sentence,  with  its  two  necessary  parts,  subject  and  predicate. 
There  are  but  four  kinds  and  they  are  easily  recognized. 
A  sentence  which  makes  a  statement  is  called  declarative. 
A  sentence  which  asks  a  question  is  called  interrogative.  A 
sentence  which  expresses  a  command  or  an  entreaty  is  called 
imperative.  A  sentence  expressing  emotion  in  the  form  of 
exclamation    is    called    exclamatory.     Here    are    examples; 

Declabative:    The  tide  has  turned. 
Interrogative:   Has  the  tide  turned.'* 
Imperative:    Haul  up  the  sail. 
Exclamatory:    How  swiftly  we  glide! 
327 


328  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

There  are  eight  kinds  of  words:  nouns,  pronouns,  verbs, 
adjectives,  adverbs,  prepositions,  conjunctions,  interjec- 
tions. They  are  called  the  eight  parts  of  speech.  WTiat  a 
word  does  determines  what  it  should  be  called. 

A  word  that  names  something  is  a  noun.  Chicago,  grapes, 
canoeing,  patience,  and  John  are  nouns  because  each  of  these 
words  names  something  that  we  may  wish  to  talk  about. 
Of  all  the  parts  of  speech  nouns  are  the  most  important, 
in  number  as  well  as  in  service.  We  might  possibly  get 
along  without  the  other  seven,  but  names  for  things  are  a 
necessity. 

A  word  used  as  a  substitute  for  a  noun  is  a  pronoun. 
Note  these  two  sentences: 


John  gave  the  knife  to  Henry. 
He  gave  it  to  him. 


There  are  three  nouns  in  the  first:  John,  knife,  and  Henry. 
In  the  second,  the  pronouns  He,  it,  and  him  take  the  place 
of  the  three  nouns.  There  are  not  many  pronouns,  but 
they  are  a  great  convenience.  How  awkward  it  would  be 
if  instead  of  "  I  am  very  thirsty.  May  I  have  a  drink  of 
water?  *'  you  were  obliged  to  say,  "  Tom  Jones  is  very  thirsty. 
May  Tom  Jones  have  a  drink  of  water .^^  " 

Nouns  and  pronouns,  indeed  all  words  or  word-groups 
used  like  nouns,  are  called  substantives.  It  is  a  convenient 
term  to  employ  when  talking  about  sentences. 

The  verb  is  not  easily  defined.  It  is  the  predicate  word 
without  which  there  can  be  no  sentence.  Usually  it  de- 
clares or  asserts  something  about  the  subject.  In  the  sen- 
tence Birds  fly,  the  word  fly,  since  it  makes  an  assertion 
concerning  the  subject  Birds,  is  a  verb.  Sometimes  two  or 
three  words  combine  to  make  up  a  complete  verb.  In  the 
sentence  It  might  have  been  he,  the  words  might,  have,  and  been, 
each  really  a  verb  in  itself,  make  up  the  complete  verb 
might  have  been.     The  predicate  may  contain  other  parts  of 


THE  EIGHT  PARTS  OF  SPEECH  329 

speech  too,  but  a  verb  it  must  contain.  Since  without  it 
no  sentence  can  be  made,  the  verb  is  almost  as  important 
as  the  noun. 

A  word  used  to  modify  or  Hmit  the  meaning  of  a  sub- 
stantive is  an  adjective.  In  the  sentence  Six  crows  were 
seen,  the  adjective  Six  hmits  the  noun  crows.  In  the  sen- 
tence Dark  clouds  gathered,  the  adjective  Dark  modifies 
clouds.  It  describes  clouds,  keeps  us  from  picturing  clouds 
of  some  bright  color. 

A  word  used  to  modify  or  limit  the  meaning  of  a  verb  or  an 
adjective  is  an  adverb.  In  the  sentence  The  crows  fly  slowly, 
the  adverb  slowly  modifies  the  verb  fly.  In  the  sentence 
The  most  difficult  task  was  flnished,  the  adverb  most  modifies 
the  adjective  difficidt.  An  adverb  may  also  modify  another 
adverb,  as  is  seen  in  the  sentence  Please  speak  more  dis- 
tinctly. More  and  distinctly  are  both  adverbs;  the  former 
modifies  the  latter. 

Adjectives  and  adverbs,  and  all  words  or  word-groups 
used  like  them,  are  called  modifiers.  They  are  very  nu- 
merous and  of  great  value.  Without  them  none  but  the 
plainest  of  language  work  would  be  possible. 

A  word  used  to  connect  a  substantive  with  some  other 
word  and  show  how  the  two  are  related  is  a  preposition.  In 
the  sentence  A  company  of  soldiers  marched  by,  the  prepo- 
sition of  connects  soldiers  and  company.  In  the  sentence 
They  marched  down  the  road,  the  preposition  down  connects 
road  and  marched.  That  the  preposition  shows  relation- 
ship is  evident  at  once  when  the  preposition  is  removed 
from  the  sentence.  If,  for  example,  w^e  write  They  marched 
road,  it  is  not  clear  whether  they  marched  down  the  road, 
up  the  road,  or  to  the  road.  Insert  the  preposition,  and  the 
relationship  of  marched  and  road  is  at  once  clear. 

Word-groups  like  of  soldiers  and  down  the  road  are  called 
prepositional  phrases.  A  phrase  differs  from  a  sentence  in 
that  it  has  no  subject  and  no  predicate.     Take  a  phrase 


330  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

away  from  the  sentence  of  which  it  is  a  part  and  it  does  not 
make  complete  sense.  Down  the  road  means  little  till  we 
make  it  a  part  of  a  sentence. 

A  word  used  to  join  words,  phrases,  or  clauses  is  a  con- 
junction.    Note  the  following  sentences: 

Bookkeeping  and  typewriting  are  commercial  branches. 
You  may  walk  down  the  road  or  through  the  field. 
I  will  go,  but  you  must  remain. 

In  the  first  sentence  the  conjunction  and  joins  the  two  w^ords 
bookkeeping  and  typewriting.  In  the  second  sentence  the 
conjunction  or  joins  the  two  phrases  dovm  the  road  and 
through  the  field.  In  the  third  sentence  the  conjunction  but 
joins  the  two  clauses  /  will  go  and  you  must  remain.  A 
clause  is  a  group  of  words  containing  a  subject  and  a  predi- 
cate and  forming  part  of  a  sentence.  A  clause  differs  from 
a  phrase,  it  will  be  noted,  in  that  the  latter  does  not  contain 
subject  and  predicate.  Some  clauses  make  complete  sense 
when  removed  from  the  sentences  of  which  they  form  a 
part;  others  do  not. 

Prepositions  and  conjunctions,  and  other  parts  of  speech 
when  used  like  them,  are  called  connectives.  Connectives 
are  exceedingly  useful  in .  sentence  building,  as  you  may 
easily  prove  by  trying  to  construct  a  sentence  of  some  length 
without  employing  either  conjunctions  or  prepositions. 

A  word  used  to  express  strong  emotion  —  a  cry  or  an  ex- 
clamation—  is  an  interjection.  Ohy  alas,  and  hurrah  are 
familiar  examples.  Sometimes,  but  not  always,  the  inter- 
jection is  followed  by  an  exclamation  point. 

The  definitions  given  above  are  not  in  every  instance 
complete,  indeed  perfect  definitions  would  be  difficult  to 
frame  and  more  difficult  to  understand;  but  they  serv'e  to 
point  out  in  a  general  way  the  service  performed  by  each 
part  of  speech.  For  convenient  reference  the  definitions 
are  here  brought  together. 


THE  EIGHT  PARTS  OF  SPEECH 


331 


Parts  of 
Speech 


Nouns:  words  used  as  names 

Pronouns:  words  used  as  substitutes  for  nouns 

Verbs:  words  vital  to  the  predicate 

Adjectives:  words  used  to  modify  substantives 

Adverbs:  words    used    to    modify    verbs,    ad- 

jectives, and  other  adverbs 
Prepositions:       words  used  to  connect  substantives 
with   other   words   and   show   how 
they  are  related 
Conjunctions:      words  used  to  connect  words,  phrases, 

clauses 
Interjections:       cries   and    exclamations   used    to  ex- 
press strong  emotions 

By  way  of  further  illustration,  here  are  sentences  in  which 
the  eight  parts  of  speech  are  seen  at  work,  each  performing 
its  allotted  task: 

Noun:    The  day  is  done. 
Pronoun:    They  are  coming. 
Verb:   The  birds  have  flown. 
Adjective:   A  soft  answer  turneth  away  wrath. 
Adverb:    The  sentinel  walked  softly. 
Preposition:    Two  of  the  ships  were  lost. 
Conjunction:    Come  and  trip  it  as  ye  go. 
Interjection:    Alas!  where  have  they  gone.^^ 

Studying  these  sentences  and  the  definitions  which  they 
illustrate,  one  cannot  but  see  that  the  various  parts  of  speech 
enjoy  little  independence.  They  must  work  together  just 
as  the  individuals  in  a  community  must.  Nouns  are  helpless 
without  verbs,  and  verbs  helpless  without  nouns.  Pro- 
nouns, great  time-savers  that  enable  us  to  take  short  cuts, 
or  push  ahead  without  too  often  retracing  steps,  are  mean- 
ingless when  by  themselves.  Adjectives  and  adverbs  must 
have  something  to  cling  to,  other  words  to  work  for;  and 
connectives,  when  by  themselves,  are  like  bridges  without 
banks  to  join,  or  signboards  where  there  are  no  crossways. 


332  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

Interjections,  of  all  the  parts  of  speech,  enjoy  a  degree  of 
lonely  independence;  yet  a  page  of  interjections  and  nothing 
else  would  be  meaningless.  The  Oh!  Alas!  or  Mercy!  means 
nothing  until  some  complete  sentence  explains  what  has 
caused  the  emotion  represented  by  the  exclamation.  And 
yet,  though  there  is  no  such  thing  as  complete  independence 
among  words,  still  each  term  in  the  language  enjoys  a  kind 
of  supremacy  all  its  own.  Each  is  a  specialist  doing  some 
one  thing  better  than  it  can  be  done  by  any  other. 

Interjections  and  prepositions  do  not  change  in  form, 
nor  can  they  be  subdivided  into  classes  or  varieties  accord- 
ing to  the  service  they  perform.  Other  parts  of  speech 
may  be  divided  into  classes,  and  with  the  exception  of  the 
conjunction  may  be  *'  inflected  "  more  or  less.  That  is, 
they  may  be  bent  into  this  or  that  shape  to  express  shades 
of  meaning  and  to  show  the  relationship  of  word  to  word, 
much  as  some  machines  may  be  adjusted  to  perform  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  work.  For  example,  boys  is  an  inflected  form 
of  boy.  Failed  is  an  inflected  form  of  fail.  Centuries  ago, 
our  language  was  much  more  highly  inflected  than  it  is 
today.  But  many  inflections  have  dropped  out  of  use,  and 
others  are  gradually  disappearing.  Yet  the  shades  of  mean- 
ing and  the  relationships  they  once  expressed  still  remain, 
and  often  the  names  of  these  are  retained  even  though  the 
inflected  forms  are  gone. 

EXERCISES 

1 

Study  the  following  sentences  till  you  are  sure  that  you  know 
what  part  of  speech  each  italicized  word  is. 

1.  Indianapolis  is  the  capital  of  Indiana,  i.  Red  berries 
attract  the  hungry  birds.  3.  We  asked  the  policeman  standing 
on  the  corner.  4.  Hurrah!  we've  won.  5.  Six  and  one  make 
seven.     6.    We  hope  you  will  come.     7.    Bring  Mary  WM  you 


THE  EIGHT  PARTS  OF  SPEECH  333 

if  you  come.  8.  Come  early.  9.  You  take  the  high  road  and 
I  will  take  the  low  road.  10.  We  looked  on  the  table  and  under 
the  table. 

2 

Write  on  the  blackboard  eight  sentences,  underlining  in  each 
a  different  fart  of  speech. 

3 

Standing  before  the  class,  explain  what  is  meant  by  the  eight 
parts  of  speech. 

4 

Spell,  from  dictation,  the  following  words: 

language         declarative  exclamatory        modifier 

grammar        interrogative        preposition  connective 

predicate        imperative  substantive         speech 


n 

THE  SENTENCE 

The  first  thing  to  bear  in  mind  is  that  a  group  of  words  is 
not  a  sentence  unless  it  makes  complete  sense.  Note  the 
following : 

1.  in  the  morning  3.   which  pleased  us  greatly 

2.  making  us  laugh  4.   this  being  the  shorter  way 

Although  perfectly  good  English,  not  one  of  these  groups  is  a 
sentence,  for  not  one  makes  complete  sense.  In  each  case 
something  is  lacking.  All  are  but  parts  of  sentences,  not 
complete  ones.  They  cannot  stand  alone.  Now  note  the 
following : 

1.  We  continued  our  journey  in  the  morning. 

2.  He  told  a  funny  story,  making  us  laugh. 

3.  Sales  were  brisk,  which  pleased  us  greatly. 

4.  We  returned  through  Durham,  this  being  the  shorter  way. 

Each  of  these  is  a  sentence,  for  each  makes  complete  sense. 
Each  is  entitled  to  the  badges  of  a  complete  sentence:  a 
capital  letter  at  the  beginning  and  a  punctuation  mark  at 
the  end. 

The  second  thing  to  bear  in  mind  is  that  every  sentence 
has  two  parts,  subject  and  predicate.  The  subject  in  a 
declarative  sentence  is  represented  by  the  word  or  words 
naming  that  concerning  which  an  assertion  is  made.  The 
predicate  is  represented  by  the  w^ord  or  words  which  make 
the  assertion.  That  is  all  that  a  declarative  sentence  can 
do  —  name  something,   then  make  an  assertion   about   it. 

334 


THE  SENTENCE  335 

Since  nouns  are  names,  it  follows  that  they  are  commonly 
employed  as  subjects,  though  there  are  substitutes  for  nouns. 
Since  no  assertion  can  be  made  without  a  verb,  it  follows 
that  the  predicate  must  contain  a  verb.  Whatever  else 
you  forget,  do  not  let  slip  the  fact  that  the  predicate  must 
contain  a  verb. 

Sentence-building  receives  attention  in  a  later  chapter. 
It  will  be  well,  however,  to  study  a  few  simple  building 
plans  now.  In  the  following  sentences  the  subjects  are 
printed  in  heavy-faced  type. 

1.  Dogs  appeared. 

2.  Angry  dogs  appeared. 

3.  Dogs  of  many  kinds  appeared. 

4.  Dogs  that  had  been  wakened  appeared. 

5.  Dogs  and  men  appeared. 

6.  Angry  dogs  and  savage  men  appeared. 

Dogs  is  the  simple  subject  of  each  of  the  first  four  sentences; 
but  in  the  second  sentence  this  simple  subject  is  enlarged 
by  the  addition  of  an  adjective  modifier,  in  the  third  by  a 
phrase  modifier,  in  the  fourth  by  a  clause  modifier.  The 
fifth  sentence  shows  a  compound  subject  containing  two 
nouns  joined  by  a  conjunction,  and  the  sixth  a  compound 
subject  with  modifiers.  Thus  it  is  readily  seen  that  often 
it  takes  a  number  of  words  to  name  the  subject,  and  that, 
by  means  of  compounding  simple  subjects  and  adding 
modifiers,  sentences  of  great  length  may  be  constructed. 
(See  Exercise  1.) 

In  the  following  sentences  the  predicates  are  printed  in 
heavy-faced  type. 

1.  Birds  fly. 

2.  Birds  fly  swiftly. 

3.  Birds  fly  swiftly  to  their  nests. 

4.  Birds  fly  swiftly  to  their  nests  when  the  storm  breaks. 

5.  Birds  fly  to  their  nests  and  wait. 


336  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

In  the  second  sentence  the  verb  is  modified  by  the  adverb 
swiftly;  in  the  third  by  swiftly  and  also  by  the  phrase  to 
their  nests;  in  the  fourth  by  the  adverb  swiftly,  the  phrase 
to  their  nests,  and  the  clause  when  the  storm  breaks.  In  the 
fifth  sentence  there  is  a  compound  predicate,  two  verbs 
joined  by  a  conjunction.  One  of  the  two  verbs  is  modified 
by  a  phrase. 

There  are  still  other  ways  in  which  sentences  may  grow. 
The  verb  may  be  *'  complemented  "  —  that  is,  filled  out  — 
by  what  is  called  a  predicate  noun  or  a  predicate  adjective. 
It  may  be  "  complemented  "  by  a  noun,  pronoun,  or  group 
of  words  used  like  a  noun,  called  the  object  of  the  verb. 
Here  are  examples: 

1.  It  is  John.  3.    Edgar  found  a  ball. 

2.  The  rose  is  red.  4.    Charles  lost  it. 
5.   I  have  forgotten  where  he  found  it. 

John  is  a  predicate  noun,  red  a  predicate  adjective.  Ball 
is  a  noun,  the  object  of  found;  it  is  a  pronoun,  the  object  of 
lost;  where  he  found  it  is  a  clause,  the  object  of  have  forgotten. 
The  terms  predicate  noun,  predicate  adjective,  and  object 
will  be  more  clearly  explained  later  on.  Since  the  verb 
may  be  modified  and  complemented  in  so  many  ways,  and 
since  the  modifiers  and  complements  may  also  be  modified, 
predicates  of  great  length  can  readily  be  formed.  Long 
subjects  and  equally  long  predicates  do  not  necessarily  make 
sentences  that  are  hard  to  understand;  for  if  the  parts  are 
properly  put  together,  the  plan  of  the  whole  is  quickly  dis- 
covered.    (See  Exercises  2  and  3.) 

Simple,  compound,  and  complex  are  convenient  terms  to 
employ  in  talking  about  sentences.  A  sentence  is  simple 
if  it  contains  but  one  subject  and  one  predicate.  The  sub- 
ject may  be  compound;  the  predicate  may  be  compound. 
The  verb  may  be  complemented  in  various  ways.  There 
may  be  modifiers  in  the  form  of  single  words  or  phrases,  but 


THE  SENTENCE  337 

no  clauses.  A  clause,  you  will  remember,  is  a  group  of  words 
containing  a  subject  and  a  predicate,  forming  part  of  a 
sentence.     Here  are  examples  of  simple  sentences: 

1.  Saturday  came. 

2.  Saturday  and  Sunday  came. 

3.  Saturday  and  Sunday  came  and  went. 

4.  Emily  walked  slowly  down  to  the  shore  and  launched 

her  canoe. 

If  you  examine  these  sentences  closely,  you  will  find  that 
each  has  but  one  subject  and  one  predicate,  though  in  the 
second  and  third  the  subject  is  compound,  and  in  the  third 
and  fourth  the  predicate  is  compound.  There  are  no  clause 
modifiers. 

A  sentence  is  called  compound  if  it  is  made  up  of  two  or 
more  simple  sentences.  The  sentences  compounded  are 
joined  by  a  conjunction.     Here  is  an  example: 

The  band  struck  up  a  lively  tune  and  the  little  girls  began 
to  dance. 

A  sentence  is  complex  if  it  contains  one  or  more  dependent 
clauses.  The  dependent  clause  may  be  used  in  any  of 
several  ways.  For  example,  it  may  serve  as  a  modifier, 
like  an  adjective  or  an  adverb,  or  it  may  serve  ^s  subject  or 
as  object.     Here  are  examples: 

1.  The  boy  who  was  chosen  stepped  forward. 

2.  The  boy  stepped  forward  when  his  name  was  called. 

3.  What  he  wanted  was  soon  apparent. 

4.  We  asked  what  he  wanted. 

In  the  first  sentence  the  clause  who  was  chosen  modifies  the 
simple  subject  hoy.  In  the  second  sentence  the  clause  when 
his  name  ivas  called  modifies  the  verb  stepped.  The  clause 
what  he  wanted  serves  as  subject  of  the  third  sentence,  and 
as  object  of  the  verb  asked  in  the  fourth. 


338  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

These  definitions  will  be  better  understood  later  on,  after 
the  eight  parts  of  speech  have  received  separate  attention. 
(See  Exercises  4  and  5.) 


EXERCISES 
1 

Pick  out  the  complete  subject  of  each  of  the  follomng  sen- 
tences.    Try  to  analyze  each  subject,  showing  how  it  is  built 

1.  Troops  embarked  under  cover  of  darkness.  2.  Streets 
and  lanes  were  carefully  swept.  3.  The  panther's  cry  aroused 
the  sleepers.  4.  A  bird  in  the  hand  is  worth  two  in  the  bush. 
5.  The  flowers  that  grow  in  the  fields  are  fairest.  6.  He  and 
James  will  attend  to  it.  7.  What  became  of  the  ship  was  never 
known.  8.  To  get  up  at  five  o'clock  was  unpleasant.  9.  Weed- 
ing the  garden  kept  us  busy.  10.  Daisies,  brightest  of  flowers, 
grow  everywhere. 

2 

Pick  out  the  complete  predicates  and  try  to  analyze  each. 

1.  Clouds  intervene.  2.  We  arose  early.  3.  Light  gains 
make  a  heavy  purse.  4.  A  thing  of  beauty  is  a  joy  forever. 
5.  We  will  start  when  you  are  ready.  6.  The  traiil  leaves  at 
eight  in  the  morning.  7.  They  asked  what  was  the  matter. 
8.  The  clouds  were  dark  and  threatening.  9.  The  book  is  in 
many  respects  a  good  one.  10.  She  rushed  to  the  window, 
seized  the  flag,  and  waved  it  till  the  last  soldier  had  disappeared. 

8 

Not  all  sentences  are  so  easily  analyzed  as  those  found  in 
the  preceding  exercises,  for  often  the  regular  order  of  sub- 
ject first  and  then  the  predicate  may  not  be  followed.  In 
the  sentence  Noisily  chirped  the  robin,  the  subject  comes  last, 
the  first  word  being  a  modifier  of  the  verb.  Frequently  a 
modifying  word  or  clause  belonging  to  the  predicate  comes 


THE  SENTENCE  339 

before  the  subject.  In  an  imperative  sentence  the  subject 
may  not  be  expressed  at  all  but  simply  '*  understood.'* 
The  subject  of  the  imperative  sentence  Get  ready  is  you 
*'  understood."  Perhaps  the  most  troublesome  sentence  of 
all,  so  far  as  analysis  is  concerned,  is  one  beginning  with 
the  adverb  there.  Since  it  stands  first  and  is  followed  by  the 
verb,  the  temptation  not  to  think  but  to  jump  at  the  con- 
clusion that  there  must  be  the  subject  is  perfectly  natural. 
In  the  sentence  There  were  three  hoys  present,  the  subject  is 
three  boys,  not  There. 

Pick  out  the  complete  subject  and  the  complete  predicate  of 
each  of  the  following  sentences: 

1.  In  the  darkness  they  lost  their  way.  2.  When  Jones  had 
finished  his  story,  we  crept  to  bed.  3.  Call  me  early.  4.  Lying 
in  the  path  was  a  purse.  5.  There  was  no  one  looking.  6. 
"What,"  said  he,  "do  you  think  of  that?"  7.  Although  it 
was  snowing  hard,  he  went  willingly.  8.  If  wishes  were  horses, 
beggars  could  ride.  9.  There  were  several  reasons  why  we 
could  not  go.  10.  On  the  wall  was  a  big  map  decorated  with 
variously  colored  little  flags  showing  the  position  of  opposing 
armies. 


Which  of  the  following  sentences  are  simple,  which  compound, 
and  which  complex?     Try  in  each  case  to  give  a  reason. 

1.  The  trip  across  was  uneventful.  2.  The  windows  were 
open  and  a  feeling  of  spring  pervaded  the  air.  3.  He  then 
gave  me  a  small  rosette  of  red,  white,  and  blue,  with  three  little 
streamers  hanging  down.  4.  The  rain  trickled  down  our  backs, 
and  it  was  not  long  before  we  were  wet  and  cold.  5.  When  the 
roll  was  called,  we  found  that  three  men  were  missing.  6. 
The  Lieutenant  in  silence  opened  one  of  the  lower  drawers  of 
his  desk  and  took  from  it  an  American  flag,  which  he  solemnly 
draped  over  the  war  map  on  the  wall.  7.  The  telephone  rang 
and  I  answered  it.  8.  There  will  be  plenty  of  time  if  we  take 
the  path  through  the  field.     9.    The  dripping  I  had  heard  came 


340  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

from  a  water  pipe  over  on  my  right.  10.  I  omitted  to  mention 
that  I  expect  Squire  Harkaway  to  join  us  in  the  morning,  and 
you  must  prepare  for  my  departure  to  Oak  Hall  immediately. 

5 

Standing  near  the  blackboard,  try  to  explain  to  the  class  the 
meaning  of  the  following  terms:  subject,  predicat€y  phrase, 
clause,  simple  sentence,  complex  sentence,  compound  sentence. 
It  will  be  better  to  make  up  illustrations  than  to  use  those  found 
in  the  textbook. 


in 

NOUNS 

Nouns  are  words  used  as  names  —  names  of  persons, 
places,  objects,  in  short  whatever  can  be  talked  about. 
They  may  be  divided  into  two  classes,  proper  nouns  and 
common  nouns. 

Proper  nouns  are  words  used  to  name  persons,  places,  or 
things,  to  distinguish  them  from  all  others.  Washington  is 
a  proper  noun,  for  it  is  a  name  applied  to  a  particular  man 
to  distinguish  him  from  all  other  men.  Rome  is  a  proper 
noun,  for  it  is  a  name  applied  to  a  particular  city  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  all  other  cities. 

Common  nouns  are  names  which  may  be  applied  to  any 
one  of  a  class.  City  is  a  common  noun,  since  it  does  not 
name  any  particular  city,  but  may  be  applied  to  Rome, 
Athens,  Paris,  and  many  other  places.  Man  is  a  common 
noun,  since  it  does  not  name  Washington  nor  Lincoln  nor 
Caesar  nor  any  other  individual,  but  may  be  applied  to 
millions  of  people. 

Collective  is  a  third  term  used  in  talking  about  nouns. 
Collective  nouns  are  ones  which,  like  crowd,  committee,  and 
flock,  name  collections  or  groups.  A  few  of  them  are  proper 
nouns,  but  most  of  them  are  classed  as  common.  (See  Ex- 
ercise 1.) 

Seldom  is  it  diflScult  to  tell  to  which  class  a  noun  belongs, 
though  sometimes  a  little  thought  is  needed  in  distinguishing 
between  common  and  proper.  The  distinction  must  be 
made,  however,  for  a  proper  noun  should  begin  with  a  capi- 
tal.    Here  are  a  few  troublesome  cases: 

341 


S42  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

1.  North,  southy  east,  and  west,  when  used  to  name  sec- 
tions of  a  country,  are  usually  classed  as  proper  nouns. 

Examples:    Mr.  White  lives  out  West. 

Cotton  is  raised  in  the  South. 

The  wind  blows  from  the  east. 

The  river  runs  to  the  north  of  the  town. 

2.  Springy  summery  autumriy  fally  and  winter  are  common 
nouns. 

Example:     He  left  home  in  the  spring  and  will  not  be 
back  till  fall. 

3.  ArithmetiCy  sciencey  geographyy  and  other  names  of 
branches  of  study  are  classed  as  common  nouns;  but  Eng- 
lishy  Frenchy  Germany  Latiny  and  other  names  of  languages 
are  classed  as  proper  nouns. 

Example:     We    are    studying    arithmetic,    history,   and 
French. 

4.  Although  there  is  no  uniform  practice,  the  tendency 
seems  to  be  to  write  Ohio  river.  Elm  streety  Riverside  park, 
Atlantic  oceany  Rocky  mountains;  not  Ohio  Rivery  Elm  Street, 
Riverside  Parky  Atlantic  Oceany  Rocky  Mountains.  For- 
tunately street  is  commonly  abbreviated  to  St.y  which  always 
begins  with  a  capital;  so  this  word  gives  little  trouble. 
In  addressing  an  envelope,  too,  if  street  is  not  abbreviated, 
it  is  written  with  a  capital,  as  is  every  other  word. 

5.  Few  make  the  mistake  of  beginning  the  names  of  the 
more  familiar  birds  and  animals  with  capitals,  but  the  temp- 
tation is  strong  to  treat  as  proper  nouns  names  that  are 
unfamiliar.  A  moment's  thought  shows  that  ptarmigan 
and  ichneumony  the  first  the  name  of  a  bird,  the  second  the 
name  of  a  fly,  are  common  nouns,  like  robin  and  crickety  and 
do  not  call  for  capitals. 

The  plurals  of  nouns  are  formed  in  many  ways.  Notice, 
for  example,  the  following: 


NOUNS 


343 


boy 

boys 

man 

men 

potato 

potatoes 

child 

children 

calf 

calves 

vertebra 

vertebrae 

The  commonest  way  is  by  adding  s  or  es.  The  most  prac- 
tical way  of  mastering  the  plural  forms  is  through  observa- 
tion.    One  rule,  however,  is  worth  memorizing: 

Usually  when  y  is  preceded  by  a  vowel,  the  plural  is  formed 
by  adding  s.  When  y  is  preceded  by  a  consonant,  the  plural 
is  formed  by  changing  the  y  to  i  and  adding  es. 

In  the  word  alley y  the  final  y  is  preceded  by  a  vow^el;  there- 
fore the  plural  is  alleys.  In  the  word  ally,  the  final  y  is 
preceded  by  a  consonant;   therefore  the  plural  is  allies. 

The  following  lists  contain  words  in  common  use  that  are 
likely  to  prove  troublesome. 


academy 

academies 

gipsy 

gipsies 

alley 

alleys 

journey 

journeys 

ally 

allies 

lady 

ladies 

attorney 

attorneys 

lily 

lilies 

caddy 

caddies 

monkey 

monkeys 

chimney 

chimneys 

pulley 

pulleys 

country 

countries 

tally 

tallies 

cry 

cries 

turkey 

turkeys 

enemy 

enemies 

valley 

valleys 

ferry 

ferries 

volley 

volleys 

buffalo 

2 
buffalo s  {or  es) 

potato 

potatoes 

cargo 

cargoes 

solo 

solos 

domino 

dominoes 

soprano 

sopranos 

echo 

echoes 

tomato 

tomatoes 

mosquito 

mosquitoes 

torpedo 

torpedoes 

motto 

mottos  (or  es) 

veto 

vetoes 

piano 

pianos 

volcano 

volcanoes 

344 


JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 


belief 

beliefs 

hoof 

hoofs 

calf 

calves 

scarf 

scarfs 

chief 

chiefs 

dwarf 

dwarfs 

grief 

griefs 

elf 

elves 

handkerchief 

handkerchiefs 

wharf 

wharfs  {ar  ves) 

cannon 

cannon  {or  s) 

spoonful 

spoonfuls 

deer 

deer 

sheep 

sheep 

fish 

fish  (ores) 

trout 

trout 

goose 

geese 

Alice 

Alices                \ 

handful 

handfuls 

Jones 

Joneses 

man-of-war 

men-of-war 

Mary 

Marys  (or  ies) 

son-in-law 

sons-in-law 

Miss  Smith 

the  Misses  Sm 

alumna 

alumnae 

oasis 

oases 

alumnus 

alumni 

parenthesis 

parentheses 

axis 

axes 

phenomenon 

phenomena 

beau 

beaux 

radius 

radii 

crisis 

crises 

stratum 

strata 

madam 

mesdames 

tableau 

tableaux 

monsieur 

messieurs 

terminus 

termini 

The  collective  nouns  have  plural  forms.  We  speak  of 
crowds,  committees,  congresses,  etc.  When  the  singular 
forms  are  used,  we  treat  the  words  as  if  they  were  singular. 
Thus  we  write  The  crowd  was  silent,  not  The  crowd  were  silent. 
Occasionally,  however,  a  collective  noun  may  be  treated  as 
plural.  Thus  we  might  say  correctly  either  The  committee 
report  or  The  committee  reports.  The  United  States,  when 
this  term  is  employed  to  name  the  country  in  which  we  live, 
is  singular.  Thus  we  write  correctly  The  United  States  is  a 
republic. 


NOUNS 


345 


Another  troublesome  case  is  that  of  sums  of  money.  It 
is  correct  to  write  Ten  thousand  dollars  teas  contributed,  not 
Ten  thousand  dollars  were  contributed.  In  a  similar  way 
we  write  correctly,  Two  dollars  and  fifty  cents  was  collected. 

(See  Exercises  2-4.) 

Nouns  are  said  to  be  of  the  masculine  gender  if  they  de- 
note males,  of  the  feminine  gender  if  they  denote  females. 
A  few  nouns  have  endings  to  indicate  gender.  The  most 
common  ending  of  feminine  nouns  is  ess,  seen  in  such  words 
as  waitress  and  heiress.  The  following  list  of  gender  nouns 
may  prove  convenient  for  reference: 


actor 

actress 

heir 

heiress 

administrator 

administratrix 

hero 

heroine 

deacon 

deaconess 

host 

hostess 

drake 

duck 

lord 

lady 

duke 

duchess 

negro 

negress 

earl 

countess 

patron 

patroness 

emperor 

empress 

sir 

madam 

executor 

executrix 

testator 

testatrix 

gander 

goose 

waiter 

waitress 

god 

goddess 

wizard 

witch 

^  0 


(See  Exercise  6.) 

Nouns  undergo  slight  changes  not  only  to  express  number 
and  gender,  but  to  denote  what  is  loosely  called  possession. 
The  possessive  form  is  made  by  adding  an  apostrophe  and 
s,  except  that  to  the  plural  of  nouns  ending  in  s  the  apostro- 
phe alone  is  added.     Here  are  examples: 


man 
boy 


man  s 
boy's 


boys 


boys' 


By  this  rule  the  possessive  forms  of  Ulysses,  Moses,  and 
Jones  are  Ulysses's,  Moses's,  and  Jones's,  which  when  pro- 
nounced present  a  series  of  disagreeable  hissing  sounds; 
hence  a  few  writers  prefer  the  forms  Ulysses',  Moses',  and 
Jones'.     It  is  better,  however,  to  adhere  to  the  rule,  avoid- 


346  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

ing  unpleasant  sound  combinations  by  employing  phrases 
denoting  possession.  For  example,  the  novels  of  Dickens 
may  be  substituted  for  Dickens's  novels. 

A  common  error  to  be  guarded  against  is  that  which 
places  an  apostrophe  before  the  final  letter  of  a  noun  ending 
in  s.  Jone's  and  Dicken*s,  for  example,  are  wrongly  used 
for  Jones's  and  Dickens's.  If  two  nouns  joined  by  and 
show  joint  possession,  as  in  the  sentence  This  is  John  and 
Henry's,  the  sign  of  possession  is  needed  with  the  last  noun 
only;  but  we  write  correctly  This  is  either  John's  or  Henry* s. 
This  is  neither  John's  nor  Henry's,  and  These  two  caps  are 
John's  and  Henry's.     (See  Exercise  5.) 

Although  the  ways  in  which  nouns  are  used  in  building 
sentences  will  be  better  understood  later  on,  it  will  be  well 
to  examine  the  more  common  ways  at  this  point. 

1.  A  noun  may  be  used  as  subject  of  a  sentence.  When 
so  employed,  it  is  said  to  be  in  the  nominative  case. 

Fire  is  the  subject  of  the  sentence  Fire  burns.  It  is  also 
the  subject  of  the  verb  burns. 

2.  A  noun  may  be  used  as  the  object  of  a  verb.  When  so 
employed,  it  is  said  to  be  in  the  objective  case.^ 

Attention  has  been  called  to  the  fact  that  verbs  are  help- 
less things  until  provided  with  subjects.  Many  of  them, 
though  not  all,  need  still  further  aid.  If  we  write  The  cook 
broke,  the  question  arises  What  did  she  break?  The  verb 
does  not  make  a  complete  assertion.  It  needs  to  be  "  com- 
plemented "  —  filled  out  or  completed  —  by  something 
more.  It  needs  a  substantive  to  "  complete  the  action,"  as 
it  is  called.  Add  the  noun  dish,  making  the  sentence  read 
The  cook  broke  a  dish,  and  the  assertion  is  complete.  A 
noun  thus  employed  is  called  the  object  of  the  verb. 

3.  A  noun  may  be  used  to  denote  possession.  Wlien  so 
employed,  it  is  said  to  be  in  tlie  possessive  case. 

*  A  few  of  the  newer  grammars  use  the  tenn  accusative  for  the  more 
familiar  objective. 


NOUNS  347 

This  use  is  so  simple  that  it  hardly  needs  illustration.  In 
talking  about  the  sentence  The  hoy's  mother  appeared^  we 
say  that  hoy's  is  a  noun  in  the  possessive  case,  modifying 
mother. 

4.  A  noun  'may  be  used  after  a  preposition  in  a  prep- 
ositional phrase.  When  so  employed,  it  is  said  to  be  in 
the  objective  case,  object  of  the  preposition. 

In  the  sentence  Lighted  candles  were  placed  on  the  tree^  the 
noun  tree  is  said  to  be  in  the  objective  case  following  the 
preposition  on, 

5.  A  noun  may  be  used  as  the  indirect  object  of  a 
verb.  When  so  employed,  it  is  said  to  be  in  the  objective 
case. 

In  the  sentence  He  gave  Tom  the  torch,  the  direct  object  of 
gave  is  torch.  It  is  the  torch  that  is  given,  not  Tom.  Yet 
the  word  Tom  to  a  degree  complements  the  verb;  it  is  the 
indirect  object. 

6.  A  noun  may  be  used  as  a  predicate  nominative.  When 
so  employed,  it  is  said  to  be  in  the  nominative  case. 

In  the  sentence  This  huilding  is  a  store,  the  words  building 
and  store  name  the  same  thing.  Store  complements  the 
verb  is,  completing  the  assertion  started  by  the  verb, 
but  not  in  the  same  way  that  horse  complements  petted  in 
the  sentence  The  driver  petted  the  horse;  for  driver  and  horse, 
surely,  do  not  name  the  same  thing.  In  the  sentence  /  shall 
he  king,  the  noun  king  is  a  predicate  nominative.  The  verbs 
am,  was,  were,  shall  he,  will  he,  have  heen,  etc.,  always  take 
not  an  object  but  a  predicate  nominative. 

7.  A  noun  may  be  used  in  apposition  with  another  sub- 
stantive. When  thus  employed,  it  is  said  to  be  in  the  same 
case  as  the  word  with  which  it  is  in  apposition.  Thus  in 
the  sentence  Jones,  the  umpire,  declared  the  runner  out,  the 
noun  umpire  is  in  apposition  with  the  word  Jones.  The 
two  words  name  the  same  person.  Notice  the  use  of  the 
comma   before   and   after   the   words   in   apposition.     The 


348  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

commas  as  here  employed  are  like  parenthesis  marks  en- 
closing matter  which  might  be  removed  without  destroying 
the  sentence.  In  the  sentence  He  is  going  to  TokyOy  the 
capital  of  Japan^  the  word  capital  is  in  apposition  with 
Tokyo.  Since  Tokyo  is  in  the  objective  dase,  capital  is 
also  said  to  be  in  the  objective  case. 

8.  A  noun  may  be  used  independently  by  address.  When 
so  employed,  it  is  said  to  be  in  the  nominative  case. 

In  the  sentence  //  you  wilU  Tom^  I  should  like  to  have  you 
remain  a  few  minutes,  the  noun  Tom  is  independent  by  ad- 
dress. Tom  names  the  person  addressed  or  spoken  to;  it 
is  almost  independent  of  the  rest  of  the  sentence.  Remove 
it  from  the  sentence  and  what  remains  still  makes  complete 
sense.  Notice  that  the  noun  independent  by  address  is 
set  off  by  commas  just  as  is  the  noun  in  apposition.  When 
a  sentence  begins  with  such  a  noun,  of  course  but  one  comma 
is  necessary,  as  is  seen  in  the  sentence  Tom,  will  you  please 
remain  a  few  minutes? 

There  are  still  other  ways  in  which  nouns  are  used,  but 
those  explained  are  the  principal  ones.  Notice  that  though 
nouns  have  three  cases,  nominative,  possessive,  and  objec- 
tive, they  have  but  two  forms.  Thus  the  word  hoy  has  but 
the  two  forms  hoy  and  hoys,  unless  we  call  hoy's  and  hoys* 
additional  forms.  The  objective  case  form  is  identical  with 
the  nominative. 

These,  then,  are  the  things  we  can  tell  about  any  noun 
in  any  sentence: 

1.  We  can  tell  what  kind  it  is  —  common,  proper,  or 
collective. 

2.  We  can  tell  its  number  —  singular  or  plural. 

3.  We  can  tell  its  gender,  if  it  is  a  gender  noun;  yet  gender 
nouns  are  so  few  that  unless  the  word  under  discussion  is 
one,  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  mention  gender  at  all. 

4.  We  can  tell  its  case  —  nominative,  possessive,  ob- 
jective. 


NOUNS 


5.  Finally,  we  can  tell  how  the  noun  is  used  in  the  sen- 
tence, whether  as  subject  of  a  verb,  object  of  a  verb,  or  in 
some  other  way. 

Perhaps  the  substance  of  the  preceding  sentences  will  be 
easier  to  remember  after  you  have  studied  the  following 
display.    (See  Exercise  7.) 


Nouns 


Kinds 


Properties 


Proper 

Common 

Collective 


N-ber         jg"Xr 


Uses 


Gender 


Case 


Nominative 
case 


Possessive 


Objective 
case 


All  cases 


Masculine 
Feminine 

Nominative 

Possessive 

Objective 

Subject  of  a  verb 
Predicate  nominative 
Independent  by  address 

Denoting  possession,  usually 
modifying  another  sub- 
stantive 

Object,  direct  or  indirect,  of 

a  verb 
Following  a  preposition 

In  apposition  with  another 
substantive 


350 


JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 


EXERCISES 


Pwk  out  all  the  nouns  in  the  fable  entitled  Belling  the  Cat, 
found  on  page  8. 


Give  the  rule  for  forming  the  plural  of  nouns  ending  in  Y. 
Write  the  plural  of  each  of  the  follovnng  words  and  show  that 
the  rule  has  been  followed. 

alley  lady 

lily  caddy 

pulley  country 

turkey  valley 

ferry  gipsy 


academy 

journey 

ally 

attorney 

chimney 

monkey 

tally 

cry 

enemy 

volley 

Write  the  plural  of  each  of  the  following  words: 


buffalo 

potato 

cargo 

solo 

domino 

soprano 

echo 

tomato 

mosquito 

torpedo 

motto 

veto 

piano 

volcano 

belief 

hoof 

calf 

scarf 

chief 

dwarf 

grief 

elf 

handkerchief 

wharf 

Write  the 

plural  of  each 

4 

of  the  following 

ivords.     In  case 

you  do  not  know  the  meaning  of  a  word,  look  it  up  in  the  dic- 

tionary. 

alumna 

oasis 

alumnus 

parenthesis 

axis 

phenomenon 

beau 

radius 

crisis 

stratum 

madam 

tableau 

monsieur 

terminus 

cannon 

spoonful 

deer 

sheep 

fish 

trout 

goose 

handful 

man-of-war 

Alice 

son-in-law 

Jones 

Mary 

Miss  Smith 

NOUNS 


351 


Write  the  possessive  singular  of  each  of  the  following: 


Mrs.  Grundy 

lady 

hero 

Dickens               Wiggs 
the  king  of  England 
daughter-in-law 

fairy 
all/ 
enemy 

Write  the  possessive  plural  of  each  of  the , 

following: 

ally 

Miss  Stone 

dollar 

fairy 

enemy 

king  of  Spain 

hero 

Wiggs 

horse 

lady 

Ulysses 

shanty 

Which  of  the  following  forms  are  correct? 


Herbert's  and  Harold's 
Addison  or  Steele's 


Herbert  and  Harold's 
Addison's  or  Steele's 


2-    ^■ 


What  feminine  gender  nouns  correspond  to  the  following? 


actor 

administrator 

hero 

host 

deacon 

lord 

drake 

negro 

duke 

patron 

earl 

sir 

emperor 

testator 

executor 

waiter 

gander 

god 

heir 

wizard 

Pick  out  the  nouns. 

7 

Tell  what  case  each 

is  in  and 

is  used. 

1.  Whistles  blew.  2.  The  cook's  fire  went  out.  3.  John,  you 
may  build  a  fire  for  Mary,  the  cook.  4.  Give  John  the  matches, 
please.  5.  The  mice  held  a  council  behind  closed  doors.  6.  Keep 
thy  shop  and  thy  shop  will  keep  thee.  7.  The  secret  of  thrift, 
my  son,  is  foresight.  8.  The  real  business  man  is  a  man  of  con- 
stant service  to  his  community.  9.  I  have  just  received  a 
letter,    Albert,   from   Mr.   Bentley,   the   carpenter.     10.    When 


352  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

Nero  built  his  palace  of  marble  and  ivory  and  gold,  he  said, 
"  This  is  a  fit'house  for  a  man."  11.  Girls  and  boys  of  America, 
you  are  the  hope  of  the  world. 


8 

Standing  before  the  class  and  near  the  blackboardy  perform 
one  of  the  following  tasks: 

1.  Give  a  two-minute  talk  on  nouns,  explaining  the  terms 
common,  proper,  collective.  Include  an  account  of  how  capitals 
should  be  used. 

2.  Give  a  two-minute  talk  on  how  to  form  plurals  and  pos- 
sessives,  illustrating  the  rules  by  means  of  examples. 

3.  Give  a  four-minute  talk  on  how  nouns  are  used,  illustrat- 
ing by  means  of  sentences. 

9 

Spell  from  dictation  the  following  words: 


capital 

precede 

apostrophe 

apposition 

beginning 

feminine 

nominative 

independent 

usually 

possessive 

predicate 

address 

IV 
PRONOUNS 

Pronouns  are  words  used  mainly  as  substitutes  for  nouns. 
The  word  for  which  a  pronoun  stands  is  called  its  antecedent. 
Thus  in  the  sentence  Clarke  is  sicch  a  fine  fellow  that  every- 
body likes  him,  the  antecedent  of  the  pronoun  him  is  the 
noun  Clarke. 

There  are  five  kinds  of  pronouns:  personal,  demonstra- 
tive, interrogative,  relative,  and  indefinite.  Here  is  a  dis- 
play in  which  the  personal  pronouns  are  given.  It  should 
be  memorized.     (See  Exercise  1.) 


Norn. 
Poss. 
Obj. 


Pronouns  of  the  First  Person 

Singular  Plural 

I  we 

my,  mine  our,  ours 

me  us 


Pronouns  of  the  Second  Person 


Nom.  you  thou 

Poss.       your,  yours    thy,  thine 
Obj.  you  thee 


you,  ye 

your,  yours 

you,  ye 


Nom.  he 
Poss.  his 
Obj.      him 


Pronouns  of  the  Third   Person 
she  it 


her,  hers 
her 


its 
it 


they 

their,  theirs 

them 


353 


354  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 


myself 

yourself,  thyself 

himself,  herself,  itself 


Compound  Personal  Nouns 

ourselves 
yourselves 


themselves 


Studying  this  display,  we  note  that  by  using  different 
pronouns  we  can  indicate  number  (singular,  plural),  gender 
(masculine,  feminine,  neuter),  case  (nominative,  possessive, 
objective),  and  person  (first,  second,  third).  Number, 
gender,  and  case  are  terms  that  have  been  used  in  the  section 
on  nouns.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  explain  that  neuter 
means  neither  masculine  nor  feminine^  or  not  denoting  sex. 
Person  is  a  new  term.  By  first  person  is  meant  the  person 
speaking,  by  second  person  the  person  spoken  to,  by  third 
person  the  person  spoken  of. 

The  possessive  forms  my,  your,  thy,  his,  her,  its,  and  their 
are  used  like  adjectives,  and  when  so  employed  are  called 
pronominal  adjectives.  In  the  sentence  Her  eyes  are  blue 
and  your  eyes  are  brown.  Her  and  your  are  pronominal  ad- 
jectives modifying  eyes.  Mine,  thine,  hers,  his,  ours,  ijours, 
and  theirs  are  used  as  pronouns.     Here  are  examples: 

Theirs  and  ours  were  chosen.  The  book  is  mine. 

Hers  lasted  longer  than  his.  I  like  yours  best. 

When  used  as  an  adjective,  the  personal  pronoun  has  a 
noun  with  it  which  it  modifies;  when  used  as  a  pronoun,  it 
stands  alone,  serving  as  subject,  object,  or  in  some  other 
way  in  which  nouns  are  employed. 

The  pronouns  of  the  second  person  call  for  a  word  of  ex- 
planation. Thou,  thy,  thine,  and  ye  are  seldom  employed 
except  in  poetry  and  in  solemn  prose.  You,  your,  and  yours 
are  really  plural  forms,  but  they  are  employed  in  both  the 
singular  and  the  plural. 

Errors  in  the  use  of  personal  pronouns  are  coTiiTiion. 
The  following  should  receive  careful  attention: 


PRONOUNS  355 

1.  Remember  first  of  all  that  there  are  no  such  pronouns 
as  ourn,  yourn,  theirriy  their  selves  y  itsself.  The  correct  forms 
are  oursy  yours,  theirs,  themselves,  itself. 

2.  It's  is  not  the  possessive  form  of  it  but  a  con- 
traction of  it  is.  Similarly  youre  and  they're  are  not 
possessives  but  contractions  of  you  are  and  they  are.  (See 
Exercise  5.) 

3.  Sometimes  the  very  ignorant  forget  that  the  subject 
of  a  verb  should  be  in  the  nominative  case.  Hence  they 
say  not  He  and  I  went  fishing  but  Him  and  I  went  fishing. 
Still  other  errors  in  case  are  all  too  common.  For  example, 
we  sometimes  hear  a  sentence  of  this  kind:  Teacher  spoke 
to  her  and  I  about  being  late.  The  sentence  is  incorrect,  for 
the  objective  case  should  be  used  after  the  preposition,  not 
the  nominative.  The  correct  form  would  be  Teacher  spoke 
to  her  and  me  about  being  late.  Most  common  of  all  is  the 
use  of  the  objective  case  where  a  predicate  nominative  is 
required.  It  is  incorrect  to  say  It  is  him,  for  the  verb  is 
does  not  take  an  object.  The  correct  form  is  It  is  he.  (See 
Exercises  2  and  3.) 

4.  Through  carelessness  we  say  Either  Margaret  or  Helen 
has  left  their  gloves  when  we  should  say  Either  Margaret  or 
Helen  has  left  her  gloves;  for  the  antecedent  of  her  —  that  is, 
the  word  to  which  it  refers  —  is  singular  and  with  this  ante- 
cedent the  pronoun  should  agree.  A  personal  pronoun 
should  always  agree  with  its  antedecent  in  person,  number, 
and  gender.  Similarly  we  say  Has  any  one  lost  their  gloves? 
when  we  should  say  Has  any  one  lost  her  gloves?  for  the  ante- 
cedent any  one  is  singular.  In  case  both  sexes  are  repre- 
sented by  such  words  as  any  one  or  each,  it  is  correct  to  use 
the  masculine  his  rather  than  the  awkward  his  or  her;  for 
example,  Let  every  pupil  sign  his  name. 

5.  Sometimes  a  sentence  is  so  worded  that  it  is  difficult 
to  tell  to  what  antecedent  a  pronoun  refers.  This  is  il- 
lustrated in  the  sentence  John's  father  died  when  he  was 


856  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

quite  young,  where  it  is  not  clear  whether  the  antecedent  of 
he  is  John  or  father,     (See  Exercise  4.) 

6.  Instead  of  Two  other  hoys  and  myself  were  presenty  it 
is  better  to  say  Two  other  hoys  and  I  were  present,  or  better 
still,  Three  of  us  hoys  were  present.  The  compound  pro- 
nouns should  be  reserved  for  such  uses  as  are  represented 
by  the  following  sentences:  /  myself  saw  it;  He  hurt 
himself. 

7.  Finally,  politeness  should  prompt  us  to  say  John  and 
I  will  do  it,  not  /  and  John  will  do  it. 

Demonstrative  pronouns  are  but  four  in  number:  this, 
that,  and  their  plurals  these  and  those.  Demonstrative 
means  designating  or  pointing  out.  The  demonstratives, 
like  the  personals,  are  also  used  as  adjectives,  and  when  so 
employed  are  called  pronominal  adjectives.  In  the  sen- 
tence These  have  hlue  eyes,  the  demonstrative  these  is  a  pro- 
noun. It  does  not  modify  anything.  It  stands  alone,  like 
a  noun.  In  the  sentence  These  eyes  are  hlue,  the  demon- 
strative these  is  a  pronominal  adjective.     It  modifies  eyes. 

Two  errors  in  the  use  of  demonstratives  are  common. 

1.  Sort  and  kind  are  singular  in  number;  their  plurals 
are  sorts  and  hinds.  Hence  it  is  incorrect  to  say  these  sort 
or  these  hind.  The  correct  forms  are  this  sort  and  this  kind. 
Similarly  we  should  say  not  those  sort  and  those  kind  but 
that  sort  and  that  kind. 

2.  Just  hear  them  hoys  laugh!  is  incorrect.  Just  hear 
those  hoys  laugh!  is  correct.  The  error  consists  in  substi- 
tuting a  personal  pronoun  for  the  demonstrative. 

The  interrogative  pronouns,  so  called  because  used  in 
asking  questions,  are  who,  which,  and  what.  Of  these  three, 
icho  alone  has  case  forms :  nominative  who,  possessive  whose, 
objective  whom.  The  forms  for  the  singular  and  the  plural 
are  the  same. 


PRONOUNS  357 

The  forms  whose,  which,  and  what  are  employed  not  only 
as  pronouns  but  as  pronominal  adjectives.  Here  are  ex- 
amples : 

Pronouns  Pronominal  adjectives 

Whose  is  it?  Whose  dog  is  it? 

Which  shall  we  take?  Which  road  shall  we  take? 

W^hat  has  happened?  What  book  are  you  reading? 

Notice  that  the  pronominal  adjectives  all  modify  nouns, 
and  that  the  pronouns  stand  alone. 

Two  errors  are  common  in  the  use  of  interrogatives. 

1.  Whose  is  too  often  spelled  either  whoes  or  who's.  There 
is  no  such  word  as  whoes.     Who's  is  a  contraction  of  who  is. 

2.  In  the  sentence  Who  did  you  see?  the  subject  is  not 
tvho  but  you.  The  pronoun  who  is  the  object  of  the  verb 
did  see.  It  should  be  in  the  objective  case.  Therefore  the 
sentence  should  read  Whom  did  you  see? 

The  principal  relative  pronouns  are  who,  which,  what, 
and  that,  with  their  compounds  whoever,  whichever,  whoso- 
ever, whichsoever,  etc.  Of  the  relatives,  who  and  its  com- 
pounds are  the  only  ones  having  case  forms  (who,  whose, 
whom);  yet  we  speak  of  any  pronoun  of  this  class  as  being 
in  the  nominative  or  the  objective  case  according  as  it  is 
used. 

Whose,  which,  and  what  are  used  adjectively,  like  other 
pronouns  that  we  have  examined.     Here  are  examples: 

Pronouns  Pronominal  adjectives 

I  know  whose  it  is.  I  know  whose  book  it  is. 

I  know  which  is  mine.  I  know  which  hat  is  mine. 

But  the  main  use  of  the  relative  pronoun  is  to  introduce 
dependent  clauses.  When  so  employed  it  resembles  a 
conjunction.  In  some  textbooks  it  is  called  a  conjunctive 
pronoun.     Study  the  following  sentences: 


358  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

1.  The  example  which  I  could  not  do  was  explained. 

2.  Give  this  to  whoever  calls  for  it. 

3.  I  saw  what  was  coming. 

4.  What  he  did  with  it  was  never  known. 

5.  The  lake  was  rough,  which  made  our  progress  slow. 

All  of  these  sentences  are  complex;  that  is,  each  contains 
a  dependent  clause.  In  the  first  sentence  the  clause  ivhich 
I  could  not  doy  introduced  by  the  relative  pronoun  which, 
modifies  the  subject-noun  example.  In  the  second  sentence 
the  clause  whoever  calls  for  it  follows  the  preposition  to,  like 
a  noun  in  the  objective  case.  In  the  third  sentence  the 
clause  what  was  coming  is  the  object  of  the  verb  saw.  What 
he  did  with  it,  in  the  fourth,  forms  the  complete  subject  of 
the  sentence.  In  the  fifth  sentence  the  clause  which  made 
our  progress  slow  does  not  serve  as  subject  nor  as  object, 
nor  as  modifier  of  some  one  word;  it  really  goes  with  the 
entire  assertion  The  lake  was  rough.  All  of  the  relative 
pronouns  in  these  five  sentences  are  found  in  dependent 
clauses;  all  introduce  the  clauses  of  which  they  form  a 
part.  All  deserve  the  name  relative,  for  each  relates  or 
refers  to  some  antecedent.  The  antecedent  is  not,  how- 
ever, in  every  case  found  in  a  single  word.  In  the  fifth  sen- 
tence it  is  represented  by  a  group  of  words.  In  the  fourth 
sentence  the  antedecent  of  what  is  not  expressed,  yet  it  is 
felt.  That  relatives  are  sometimes  used  like  conjunctions, 
introducing  clauses,  is  most  clearly  seen,  perhaps,  in  the 
first  sentence. 

Common  errors  in  the  use  of  relatives  are  but  two  in 
number. 

1.  We  write,  carelessly.  The  man  icho  you  see  yonder  is 
the  captain.  You,  not  who,  is  the  subject  of  see;  the  relative 
is  the  object  of  see.  Therefore  the  sentence  should  be  The 
man  whom  you  see  is  the  captain.  The  same  error  occurs  in 
the  sentence  This  is  the  man  whom  tJie  witness  said  com- 
mitted the  crime.    The  sentence  should  read,  This  is  the  man 


PRONOUNS  S59 

who  the  witness  said  committed  the  crime;  for  the  clause  the 
witness  said  is  parenthetical,  and  who  is  the  subject  of  com- 
mitted. The  parenthetical  clause  might,  for  greater  clear- 
ness, be  set  off  by  commas. 

2.  The  second  error  is  due  to  faulty  sentence  structure. 
Here  is  an  instance  taken  from  a  school  composition:  Each 
man  had  to  slide  down  a  rope  to  the  ground,  which  was  attached 
to  the  roof.  The  antecedent  of  which  is  rope;  but  since  the 
noun  ground  comes  immediately  before  the  pronoun,  the 
antecedent  appears  to  be  ground,  and  the  reader  wonders 
how  the  ground  could  be  attached  to  the  roof.  (See  Ex- 
ercises 6-9.) 

The  indefinite  pronouns,  so  called  because  they  do  not, 
as  a  rule,  stand  for  particular  persons  or  things,  are  a  low 
order,  most  of  them  commonly  used  as  adjectives.  They 
are  numerous,  the  principal  ones  being  all,  each,  any,  either, 
neither,  both,  many,  one,  any  one,  some  one,  every  one,  none,  no 
one,  several,  some,  such,  other,  another.  They  present  few  dif- 
ficulties, though,  as  has  been  noted,  we  are  apt  to  forget  that 
one,  any  one,  and  some  one  are  singular.  Hence  it  is  incorrect, 
for  example,  to  write  Every  one  must  look  out  for  themselves. 
Since  every  one  is  singular,  the  correct  pronoun  to  employ 
with  it  is  not  themselves  but  himself.     (See  Exercise  10.) 

Viewing  pronouns  collectively,  v/e  note  that  various  kinds 
are  unlike  in  regard  to  "  properties,"  as  they  are  called. 
Some  indicate  person,  number,  gender,  and  case;  others 
are  lacking  in  one  or  more  of  these  respects.  They  are 
unlike  also  as  regards  the  ways  in  which  they  serve  in  sen- 
tence building.  Some  are  employed  in  nearly  every  way 
that  nouns  are;  others  can  do  fewer  things.  Many  of  them 
are  sometimes  used  as  adjectives;  and  the  relatives,  unHke 
nouns,  serve  as  conjunctions  introducing  clauses.  The  one 
rule  to  be  remembered  in  employing  pronouns  is  this:  A 
pronoun  agrees  with  its  antecedent  in  person,  number,  and 
gender. 


360 


JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 


Pronouns 


Kinds 


Properties 


Uses 


Personal 

Demonstrative 

Interrogative 

Relative 

Indefinite 


Person:    first,  second,  third 
Number:   singular,  plural 
Gender:   masculine,  feminine,  neuter 
Case:   nominative,  possessive,  objective 


As  substitutes  for  nouns 

As  adjectives 

As  connectives,  introducing  clauses 


EXERCISES 
1 

Declining  a  pronoun  means  giving  all  its  case  formSy  singu- 
lar and  plural.  Decline  the  personal  pronouns  I,  thou,  you, 
he,  she,  it. 

2 

Explain  how  each  of  the  italicized  pronouns  and  pronominal 
adjectives  in  the  following  sentences  is  used. 

1.  We  will  try.  2.  John  carried  him  home.  S.  This  is  he. 
4.  The  pilot  took  his  daughter  with  him.  5.  Please  give  them 
a  ride.  6.  Go  to  the  ant,  thou  sluggard.  7.  You  and  /  were 
with  her  when  they  sold  vs  the  tickets.  8.  Are  you  sure  that  it 
was  they?  9.  The  pleasure  is  minCy  I  assure  you.  10.  Her  in- 
tentions were  good. 


Which  of  the  pronouns  found  in  parenthesis  is  the  correct 
one  to  use?    Give  your  reason. 


PRONOUNS  36X 

1.  I  am  sure  it  was  (he,  him).  2.  If  I  were  (him,  he),  I'd 
accept  the  offer.  3.  Neither  Holt  nor  Elliot  won  (their,  his) 
class  numerals.  4.  Every  one  except  (she,  her)  applauded  the 
speaker.  5.  Let's  you  and  (I,  me)  go  for  the  mail.  6.  (Us,  we) 
girls  have  great  larks.  7.  Look  quick!  That's  (him,  he)  over 
•there.  8.  Let's  see  who'll  get  there  first,  you  or  (me,  I).  9.  It 
fell  to  John  and  (me,  I)  to  stand  guard.  10.  The  contrast  between 
(he,  him)  and  his  brother  is  very  great.  IL  It  might  have  been 
(we,  us),  but  I  think  you  were  mistaken.  12.  It  lies  between  you 
and  (me,  I). 

13.  The  boy  stood  on  the  burning  deck 
Whence  all  but  (he,  him)  had  fled. 


Every  pronoun  should  have  a  clearly  defined^  easily  dis- 
coverable antecedent.  Revise  the  follmving  sentences,  making 
whatever  changes  are  necessary  for  clearness. 

1.  We  took  the  shells  off  the  walnuts  and  stirred  them  into 
the  candy.  2.  Before  the  boat  could  reach  the  ship,  it  sank. 
3.  She  clambered  into  the  boat,  with  the  help  of  others,  and  took 
off  her  shoes;  and  for  the  rest  of  the  ride  they  were  very  quiet 
because   so   frightened.      4.  It   is   less   than   twenty-one   years 

since  the  first  house  was  erected  in  the  town  of ,  and  now 

it  contains  20,120  inhabitants,  5.  She  called  out  to  him  to 
unravel  his  stocking  and  tie  something  heavy  to  the  end  of  it. 
6.  Wliile  Henry  Houston  was  hitching  up  his  horse  Wednesday 
afternoon  in  front  of  the  Grand  View  stables,  he  was  frightened 
by  two  dogs  that  were  fighting  and  ran  away  before  he  was 
wholly  hitched  up.  7.  No  doubt  Elbert  is  clever,  but  it  will 
not  make  up  for  his  negligence.  8.  A  carpet  sweeper  is  a  con- 
trivance for  picking  up  dust  and  scraps  from  the  floor  when  it 
is  rolled  up  and  down.  9.  Strangers  notice  at  Mt.  Holyoke  little 
marks  of  courtesy,  such  as  getting  off  the  sidewalks  and  giving 
them  the  best  seats.  10.  I  have  often  seen  an  advertisement 
containing  a  picture  of  a  little  chicken,  underneath  which  are 
the  words  "Hasn't  scratched  yet."     Nevertheless  one  of  the 


362  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

first  lessons  the  mother  hen  teaches  them  is  how  to  scratch. 
11.  The  King  had  appointed  councilors  before  the  colony 
sailed  from  England,  but  instead  of  making  known  their  names 
he  gave  strict  orders  that  they  should  be  placed  in  a  sealed  box 
not  to  be  opened  till  the  colony  reached  America;  and  curi- 
ously enough,  when  the  names  were  taken  from  the  box,  John 
Smith  was  found  among  them.  12.  On  the  second  day,  my 
feet  got  so  blistered  that  I  had  to  go  barefooted;  so  I  tied  my 
bootlaces  together  and  put  them  over  my  shoulder. 


Correct  the  following  sentences: 

1.  Yourself  and  your  family  are  invited  to  attend  our  opening 
Friday  evening.  2.  I  think  it's  wing  is  broken.  3.  They  must 
look  out  for  theirselves.  4.  Neither  of  the  culprits  would  ac- 
knowledge that  they  had  done  wrong.  5.  Please  pass  me  some 
of  them  grapes.  6.  She  asked  Leona  and  myself  to  bring  flowers. 
7.  The  canoe  righted  it's  self  immediately.  8.  It  must  have 
been  the  mayor  hisself.  9.  You  may  have  seen  two  boys,  but 
it  wasn't  us.    10.  I  and  the  other  fellow  got  into  a  wrangle. 


Here  are  'pairs  of  short,  closely  related  assertions.  Com- 
bine each  pair  into  a  single  sentence  by  employing  a  relative. 
The  first  pair,  for  example,  may  be  combined  as  follows: 
The  stranger  who  had  won  the  tournament  suddenly  dis- 
appeared. 

1.  The  stranger  suddenly  disappeared.  The  stranger  had 
won  the  tournament.  2.  This  is  Mr.  Brown.  You  all  know 
Mr.  Brown.  3.  The  roof  was  covered  with  thatch.  The  cover- 
ing of  thatch  gave  the  cottage  an  air  of  great  snugness.  4.  He 
was  a  secret-looking  man.  I  had  never  seen  him  before.  5.  He 
pointed  to  the  letter.  He  then  thrust  the  letter  into  his  pocket 
and  turned  again  to  the  company.  6.  Eventually  we  struck  a 
better  trail.     This  better  trail  led  to  a  deserted  lumber  camp. 


PRONOUNS  363 

7.  A  boy  served  as  guide.     I  have  forgotten  the  boy's  name. 

8.  No  one  had  brought  matches  with  him.  This  made  it  im- 
possible to  build  a  fire.  9.  We  went  in  at  the  door  and  entered 
a  gloomy  room.  The  door  stood  open.  10.  He  had  wonderful 
strength.      This  surprised  me  most. 


A  clause  introduced  by  a  relative  pronoun  is  called  a 
relative  clause.  You  will  have  no  difficulty  in  recognizing 
the  relative  clauses  in  the  following  sentences.  Each  sen- 
tence, however,  is  faulty  in  that  the  relative  clause  is  not 
properly  placed.  There  should  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  ante- 
cedent to  which  the  relative  refers.  For  example,  in  the 
sentence  They  carried  the  dog  to  the  police  station,  which  he 
found  at  the  door,  the  relative  which,  coming  close  after 
station,  seems  to  refer  to  it.  The  sentence  might  better  be 
made  to  read,  The  dog  which  he  found  at  his  door  they 
carried  to  the  police  station. 

Try  to  improve  the  following  sentences  by  rewording  them 
or  rearranging  them. 

1.  This  was  due  to  the  guide's  carelessness,  who  had  neglected 
to  tie  the  boat  securely.  2.  Each  man  slid  down  the  rope  to  the 
ground,  which  was  attached  to  the  roof.  3.  I  hope  this  letter 
will  reach  some  kind  person's  hands  who  will  come  to  my  rescue. 

4.  He  gave  my  uncle  the  tickets,  who  thanked  him  for  them. 

5.  On  our  way  we  passed  John's  house,  whom  we  asked  to  join 
the  party.  6.  We  saw  the  house  in  which  Maria  Mitchell  was 
born,  who  was  a  distinguished  astronomer.  7.  I  asked  the  man's 
advice  who  made  the  engine.  8.  We  sat  before  the  kitchen  fire, 
which  was  the  most  comfortable  room  in  the  house.  9.  Cer- 
berus was  a  three-headed  dog  guarding  the  entrance  to  Hades 
whose  jaws  dripped  poison.  10.  And  the  man  came  into  the 
house;  and  he  ungirded  his  camels,  and  gave  straw  and  pro- 
vender for  the  camels,  and  water  to  wash  his  feet  and  the  men's 
feet  that  were  with  him. 


364  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

8 

Supply  who  or  whom,  whwhever  is  the  correct  forniy  in  each 
of  the  following  sentences: 

1.  He  is  a  leader,  I  think,  —  we  may  safely  follow.  2.  He 
is  the  leader  — ,  1  am  told,  piloted  the  other  party.  3.  They 
called  on  a  man  —  they  thought  would  surely  know  all  about 
it.  4.  —  are  you  going  to  invite?  5.  I  know  —  I  like  and  — 
I  don't  like  better  than  he.  6.  The  man  —  you  see  taking 
tickets  is  cousin  Dan.  7.  I  do  not  know  —  to  turn  to.  8.  — 
do  they  think  I  am.'  9.  I  wonder  —  he  means.  10.  Ask  —  you 
please;  he  will  tell  you  the  same  story. 

9 

Pick  out  the  relatives  and  try  to  tell  how  each  is  used. 

1.  I  went  into  a  little  bare  room,  half  full  of  lounging  soldiers, 
who  stared  at  me  curiously.  2.  She  found  herself  falling  down 
what  seemed  to  be  a  verj'  deep  well.  3.  Whatever  I  acquired, 
I  tried  to  impart  to  Joe.  4.  Exactly  what  followed  is  known 
to  but  few  men.  5.  The  evil  that  men  do  lives  after  them. 
6.  You  may  give  him  what  he  requires.  7.  The  gentlemen 
whom  we  met  are  Canadians.  8.  The  oflScer,  whose  bravery 
had  never  been  questioned,  was  deeply  mortified.  9.  He  looked 
out  to  see  five  muffled  figures  standing  in  the  street  below,  one 
of  whom  called  and  asked  him  in  French  to  come  down  and  open 
the  door.  10.  Joe  was  evidently  made  uncomfortable  by  what 
he  supposed  to  be  my  loss  of  appetite.  11.  He  did  not  know 
whose  it  was.  12.  Whichever  way  you  take,  you  may  wish 
you  had  taken  the  other.  13.  We  had  little  idea  what  clothing 
would  be  necessary.    14.  No  one  knows  who  planned  the  gift. 

10 

Pick  out  the  indefinite  pronouns  and  pronominal  adjectives 
in  the  following  sentences.  Keeping  in  mind  that  the  pro- 
noun should  agree  with  its  antecedent  in  number,  determine 
which  of  the  two  forms  in  parenthesis  is  correct. 


PRONOUNS  365 

1.  When  any  one  goes  camping,  (they,  he)  should  take  warm 
clothing.  2.  No  one  should  allow  (himself,  themselves)  to  be 
deceived.  3.  Let  everybody  keep  (their,  his)  seat.  4.  Neither 
of  the  culprits  would  admit  that  (they,  he)  had  done  wrong. 
5.  Each  claimed  that  (he,  they)  owned  the  ball.  6.  Nobody 
will  give  up  (their,  his)  money  for  nothing.  7.  England  ex- 
pects every  man  to  do  (his,  their)  duty.  8.  Has  anybody  lost 
(their,  his)  bicycle  wrench.^  9.  He  invited  every  one  to  take 
what  (he,  they)  pleased.  10.  Anybody  who  is  dissatisfied  may 
have  (their,  his)  money  back.  11.  Each  of  the  ladies  brought 
(her,  their)  knitting.  12.  It  sounded  like  some  one  talking  in 
(their,  his)  sleep.  13.  Each  wore  a  rose  in  (their,  her)  hair. 
14.  Everybody  raised  (their,  his)  hand. 


11 

Standing  before  the  clasSy  give  brief  illustrated  talks  on  the 
following  topics:  (1)  The  members  of  the  pronoun  family; 
(2)  How  pronouns  are  used;  (3)  Common  errors  in  the  use 
of  pronouns. 

12 

Spell  from  dictation  the  following  words: 


pronominal 

interrogative 

its 

whose 

antecedent 

relative 

itself 

themselves 

personal 

indefinite 

theirs 

ourselves 

V 

ADJECTIVES 

Adjectives  are  words  used  to  modify  substantives.  There 
are  two  kinds,  descriptive  and  limiting.  The  name  de- 
scriptive is  appropriate,  for  most  of  the  adjectives  belong- 
ing to  this  class  describe  whatever  the  substantives  which 
they  modify  name.  Thus  in  the  sentence  The  plucky  fellow 
drove  on,  the  adjective  plucky  describes  the  person  indicated 
by  fellow.  When  derived  from  proper  nouns,  descriptive 
adjectives  are  called  proper  adjectives  and,  with  few  ex- 
ceptions, begin  with  a  capital  letter.  Thus  from  France  is 
derived  the  proper  adjective  French,  and  from  Victoria 
comes  Victorian.  Many  nouns  are  used  as  adjectives  with- 
out undergoing  change.  In  the  sentence  The  New  York 
man  is  painting  the  iron  fence,  the  nouns  New  York  and  iro7i 
become  adjectives,  since  they  modify  substantives. 

Limiting  adjectives,  far  fewer  in  number  than  the  de- 
scriptives,  are  also  well  named,  for  most  of  them  Hmit  the 
meaning  of  the  substantives  which  they  modify.  Notice 
the  following  sentences: 

A  boy  ran  by.  My  boy  ran  by. 

Six  boys  ran  by.  Every  boy  ran  by. 

The  italicized  words  in  these  sentences  are  limiting  adjec- 
tives. A  and  six  limit  the  number  of  boys.  My  picks  out 
one  boy  from  among  many.  Every,  too,  in  a  way  limits, 
since  it  tells  how  many  of  the  boys  ran  by.  Under  Hmiting 
adjectives  come  a  number  of  minor  groups.  Simplest  arc 
the  articles:  a,  an,  and  the.  Seldom  do  they  cause  any 
trouble;   we  learn  to  employ  them  correctly  almost  as  soon 


ADJECTIVES  367 

as  we  learn  to  talk.  Nearly  as  simple  are  the  numerals  — 
oney  two,  fir  sty  second,  etc.,  —  though  a  number  of  words 
belonging  to  this  group  are  commonly  misspelled,  notably 
twelfth,  forty-fourth,  and  ninetieth.  Less  simple  are  the  pro- 
nominals,  to  which  attention  has  already  been  called.  There 
are  the  possessive  pronominals  my,  mine,  thy,  thine,  his,  her, 
its,  our,  your,  their,  whose;  the  demonstrative  pronominals 
this,  that,  these,  those;  the  interrogative  pronominals  which, 
what,  and  their  compounds;  and  the  indefinite  pronominals 
some,  any,  many,  few,  all,  both,  such,  other,  each,  every,  either, 
and  neither.  Some  of  these  pronominals,  it  will  be  noted, 
indicate  person,  number,  and  gender;  hence  they  are  more 
troublesome  than  the  descriptive  adjectives. 

Adjectives  differ  from  nouns  and  pronouns  in  that  many 
of  them  undergo  changes  to  indicate  degrees  of  comparison 
—  positive,  comparative,  superlative.     Here  are  illustrations: 

Positive  degree:   The  sparrow  is  noisy. 
Comparative  degree:   The  starling  is  noisier. 
Superlative  degree:   The  crow  is  noisiest  of  all. 

The  comparative  is  used  where  a  comparison  is  made  be- 
tween two,  the  superlative  when  more  than  two  are  com- 
pared and  one  is  singled  out  as  possessing  some  quality  in 
the  highest  degree. 

In  a  few  cases  degree  is  indicated  by  an  entire  change  of 
word.     Here  are  common  examples: 

good,  better,  best  bad,  worse,  worst 

much,  miore,  most  little,  less,  least 

In  other  cases  the  suffixes  er  and  est  are  added  to  the  simple 
or  positive  form,  as  in  siveet,  sweeter,  sweetest.  In  adding 
these  suffixes,  it  is  necessary  to  bear  in  mind  the  rules  for 
spelling  words  when  suffixes  are  added.  The  comparative 
degree  of  hot  is  not  hoter  but  hotter.  The  comparative  de- 
gree of  lovely  is  not  lovelyer  but  lovelier.  Still  other  adjectives 
form  their  comparative  and  superlative  degrees  by  means  of 


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JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 


the  words  more  and  most,  less  and  least.  Thus  we  say 
beautiful,  more  beautiful,  most  beautiful.  It  is  hardly  nec- 
essary to  caution  against  the  use  of  such  combinations  as 
more  beautifuler;  nor  to  remind  that  square,  straight,  per- 
fect, and  many  similar  expressions  cannot  logically  have 
more  than  one  degree,  though  we  find  it  convenient  to  be 
illogical  and  say  squarer,  straighter,  and  more  perfect.  It  is 
better  to  say  more  nearly  square,  more  nearly  straight,  more 
nearly  perfect.  A  very  common  error,  but  not  a  serious  one, 
is  illustrated  in  the  sentence  John  is  the  tallest  of  the  ttco. 
The  statement  should  be  John  is  the  taller  of  the  two.' 

The  natural  position  for  the  adjective  is  directly  before 
the  substantive  which  it  modifies,  as  in  the  sentence  Lovely 
lilacs  line  Lee's  lane.  Very  often,  however,  the  adjective 
forms  a  part  of  the  predicate  and  is  separated  by  the  verb 
from  the  noun  it  modifies.  In  the  sentence  The  lilacs  are 
lovely,  lovely  modifies  the  subject  lilacs.  When  thus  placed, 
it  is  called  a  predicate  adjective.  Less  commonly  it  is  placed 
like  a  noun  in  apposition,  as  is  seen  in  the  following  sentence: 
The  traveler,  weary  and  cold,  looked  about  for  shelter. 


Adjectives 


Kinds 


Descriptive 


Common 
Proper 


Limiting,  including 


Articles 

Numerals 

Pronominals 


Properties 


Number  (some  pronominals) 
Gender  (some  pronominals) 
Person  (some  pronominals) 
Positive 
Comparative 
Superlative 


Degree 
Use  To  modify  substantives 


ADJECTIVES 


EXERCISES 


Compare  such  of  the  following  adjectives  as  can  be  compared. 
Which  are  proper  adjectives?  Which  are  derived  from  nouns? 
Which  may  be  used  as  nouns? 


able 

absent 

active 

admifable 

American 

angry 

Arabian 

bad- 

big 

birdlike 

blue 

British 

busy 

Canadian 

CathoHc 

chatty 

choral 

circular 

clumsy 

comic 

continual 

correct 

cylindrical 

daily 

duU 

English 

even 

faithful 

far 

funny 

good 

Grecian 

half 

holy 

icy 

inside 

Italian 

just 

laughable 

little 

mad 

manly 

middle 

much 

perfect 

possible 

pretty 

principal 

red 

sly 

straight 

true 

Are  you  sure  that  you  can  spell  correctly  all  the  numerals? 
Test  yourself  with  the  following  list: 


nineteen 

forty 

ninety 

hundred 

million 

ninth 

nineteenth 

twenty-ninth 

fortieth 

forty-fourth 

ninetieth 

ninety-nine 

ninety-ninth 

hundredth 

thousandth 

millionth 

Here  are  sentences  in  which  adjectives^  including  pro- 
nominalsy  are  prominent.  Pick  out  the  adjectives  and  tell 
ichat  word  each  one  modifies.     Which  are  predicate  adjectives? 

1.  He  made  a  polite  bow.  2.  The  little  brook  heard  it. 
3.  The  house  stood  in  a  lonely,  wild  part  of  the  country,  among 


370  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

gray  Derbyshire  hills.  4.  The  fair  Venetian  shuddered  as  she 
heard  these  tales.  5.  A  scanty  household  seemed  to  people 
this  dreary  mansion.  6.  The  Count,  white  with  rage,  did  not 
speak.  7.  Red  as  a  rose  was  she.  8.  He  was  an  old  gentleman, 
one  side  of  whose  face  was  no  match  for  the  other.  9.  "To 
whom  does  that  chateau  belong,  friend.''"  cried  my  uncle  to  a 
meager  but  fiery  postilion  who,  with  tremendous  jack-boots 
and  cocked  hat,  was  floundering  on  before  him.  10.  He  was  a 
dark,  stern,  powerful-looking  fellow;  and  as  the  light  of  a  lamp 
in  the  corridor  fell  upon  his  deeply-marked  face  and  sinewy 
form,  he  seemed  capable  of  defending  his  castle  with  his  single 
arm.  11.  The  steward  had  a  rusty  blunderbuss,  the  coach- 
man a  loaded  whip,  the  footman  a  pair  of  horse-pistols,  the  cook 
a  huge  chopping-knife,  and  the  butler  a  bottle  in  each  hand. 
12.  These  accounts  of  pots  of  money  and  Spanish  treasure 
made  him  almost  dizzy.  13.  Sweet  are  the  uses  of  adversity. 
14.  Cold  and  weak,  he  struggled  blindly  on. 

4 

Criticize  the  following: 

1.  Can't  you  make  it  rounder  at  the  top  and  squarer  at  the 
bottom. '^  2.  This  is  good,  but  the  other  is  more  preferable. 
3.  These  kind  are*  hard  to  catch.  4.  Which  is  the  tallest,  the 
english  soldiers  or  the  french?  5.  You  are  pale.  Don't  you 
feel  good  this  morning? 


Give  a  brief  talk  to  the  class  on  one  of  the  following  topics: 
(1)  Adjectives,  and  how  they  are  used;  (2)  Commo?i  errors  in 
the  use  of  adjectives. 


VI 
ADVERBS 

Adverbs  are  words  used  to  modify  verbs,  adjectives,  and 
other  adverbs.     Here  are  examples: 

The  wheels  creaked  mournfully. 

The  night  was  very  cloudy. 

I  approve  of  your  plan  most  heartily. 

In  the  first  sentence  the  adverb  mournfully  modifies  the  verb 
creaked.  In  the  second  the  adverb  very  modifies  the  ad- 
jective cloudy.  In  the  third  the  adverb  most  modifies  the  ad- 
verb heartily.  Sometimes,  however,  the  adverb  does  not  go 
with  any  particular  word  but  is  used  almost  independently, 
or  at  least  seems  to  modify  the  entire  sentence.  This  is 
illustrated  in  the  following  sentences: 

This,  however,  we  could  not  do. 

You  are,  indeed,  quite  right  in  all  that  you  say. 

Here  the  words  however  and  indeed  are  adverbs.  Notice 
that  they  are  set  off  by  commas. 

Adverbs  resemble  adjectives  in  many  ways;  indeed,  some 
words  serve  both  as  adjectives  and  as  adverbs.  In  the 
sentence  John  is  a  fast  runner,  the  word  fast  is  an  adjective 
modifying  the  noun  runner.  In  the  sentence  John  runs  fast, 
the  word  fast  is  an  adverb  modifying  the  verb  runs.  Many 
adverbs  are  derived  from  adjectives.  From  sweet  comes 
the  adverb  sweetly,  from  beautiful  comes  beautifully.  More- 
over, it  should  be  remembered  that  some  nouns  are  used  as 
adverbs.     In  the  sentence   He  arrived  yesterday,  the  noun 

371 


S72  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

yesterday  is  used  adverbially,  modifying  the  verb  much  as 
does  the  word  early  in  the  sentence  He  arrived  early. 

Adverbs  may  be  classified  according  to  their  meaning. 
Thus  there  are  adverbs  of  time  such  as  now^  then,  soon; 
adverbs  of  place  such  as  there,  here,  out,  below;  adverbs  of 
manner  such  as  quickly,  carefully,  hesitatingly;  adverbs  of 
degree  such  as  very,  rather,  and  almost.  The  adverb  is  some- 
times loosely  defined  as  a  **how,  when,  and  where  word." 

Still  other  terms  are  employed  in  talking  about  adverbs. 
Interrogative  is  the  name  applied  to  an  adverb  introducing 
a  question.  Why,  in  the  sentence  Why  are  you  laughing? 
is  an  interrogative  adverb.  To  this  class  belong  how, 
when,  and  where.  Yes  and  no  are  called  responsives. 
There,  used  in  such  sentences  as  There  unll  he  dancing,  is 
called  an  expletive.  The  Latin  word  from  which  expletive 
is  derived  means  to  **  fill  out."  There,  without  adding  to 
the  meaning,  fills  out  the  sentence.  Since  it  commonly 
stands  first,  it  is  sometimes  called  an  introductory  adverb. 
Familiarity  with  the  names  applied  to  various  classes  of 
adverbs  is  of  little  value.  The  names  are  given  here 
mainly  to  suggest  the  wide  range  of  adverbial  usefulness. 

Some  adverbs,  but  by  no  means  all,  have  degrees  of  com- 
parison, formed  by  the  endings  er  and  est,  or  by  adding  the 
words  more  and  most,  less  and  least.  A  few  are  irregular, 
as  is  the  case  with  adjectives.  Here  are  sentences  in  which 
adverbs  in  the  comparative  and  the  superlative  degree  are 
used: 

The  fire  began  to  spread  more  sicijihj. 

Step  livelier,  please. 

We  will  do  so  most  icillingly. 

Adverbs  present  few  difficulties,  yet  there  are  a  few  errors 
which  call  for  attention. 

1.  There  are  no  such  adverbs  as  anywheres,  nowheres, 
somewheres,  and  someplace.     The  correct  forms  for  the  first 


ADVERBS  373 

three  are  anywhere^  nowhere,  somewhere.  For  someplace,  in 
the  sentence  I  must  have  left  it  someplacey  use  the  word 
somewhere.  It  is,  of  course,  correct  to  use  some  place  (two 
words)  in  a  sentence  like  the  following :  We  must  find  some 
place  for  our  books. 

2.  Since  the  expletive  there  often  stands  first  in  a  sen- 
tence, where  naturally  the  subject  is  expected,  and  since  it 
appears  to  be  singular  rather  than  plural,  it  is  often  incor- 
rectly followed  by  a  singular  verb  when  a  plural  verb  is 
required.  There  was  three  boys  is  incorrect;  for  the  subject 
is  boys,  a  noun  plural  in  number,  and  the  plural  subject  calls 
for  a  plural  verb.  The  sentence  should  read.  There  were 
three  boys. 

3.  Adverbs  are  wrongly  used  as  adjectives  and  adjectives 
as  adverbs.  The  uneducated  person  may  say  I  sure  did 
have  a  great  time,  whereas  he  should  say  /  surely  did  have  a 
great  time.  Or  he  may  say  How  nicely  it  looks,  meaning 
How  nice  it  looks. 

4.  Errors  arise  occasionally  through  the  improper  placing 
of  adverbs.  The  natural  position  is  after  the  verb,  as  in  the 
sentence  We  walked  slowly.  Sometimes  an  adverb  divides  a 
verb  phrase,  as  in  the  sentence  We  could  not  hear.  Some- 
times it  comes  first  in  the  sentence,  as  in  the  following: 
Cautiously  we  approached  the  crater.  There  is,  then,  no 
one  place  where  an  adverb  must  be  placed.  And  yet  it  is 
possible  to  place  it  so  that  the  meaning  of  the  sentence  is  in 
doubt.  Notice  this  sentence:  He  answered  all  the  questions 
that  were  asked  him  promptly.  Does  this  mean  that  he  an- 
swered all  the  questions  promptly,  or  that  he  answered  not 
all  of  the  questions  but  merely  those  that  were  promptly 
asked?  Care  should  be  taken  so  to  place  the  adverb  that 
no  doubt  can  arise  as  ta^hat  word  it  modifies. 

5.  Perhaps  the  most  common  error  of  all  is  the  use  of 
double  negatives.  This  is  illustrated  in  the  sentence  / 
don't  want  no  more.     No  is  a  negative,  and  so  is  not.     One 


574 


JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 


of  the  two  is  useless.     The  sentence  should  read  /  want  no 
morey  or  /  donH  want  any  more. 


Of  time 
Of  place 
Of  manner 
Kinds       1  Of  degree 

Interrogative 
Responsive  (yes,  no) 
Expletive  (there) 


Adverbs 


Property     Degree 


Positive 
Comparative 
.  Superlative 


Use  To   modify   verbs,   adjectives,   and    other 

adverbs 


EXERCISES 


Pick  out  the  adverbs.  Which  ones  modify  verbs  and  which 
modify  adjectives  or  adverbs?  Which  are  used  practically 
independently? 

1.  He  answered  fearlessly.  2.  We  approached  most  cau- 
tiously. 3.  She  was  radiantly  happy.  4.  Now  you  may  go. 
5.  Why  do  you  smile?  C.  Here  and  there  were  children  playing. 
7.  There  will  be  rain  before  morning.  8.  I  do  not  know  his 
name.  9.  Yes,  you  may  go  too.  10.  Immediately  he  opened 
the  door.  11.  The  aunts  were  continually  hovering  around  her. 
12.  '*Why,"  asked  he,  "can  you  not  send  some  one  in  your 
place?"  13.  Next  came  the  clowns  and  then  the  band. 
14.  What  happened  once  may  happen  again.  15.  My  plan, 
moreover,  is  very  simple. 


ADVERBS  375 

2 

Improve  the  following  sentences  by  placing  the  adverbs  nearer 
the  words  they  modify. 

1.  She  had  only  been  gone  a  few  minutes.  2.  The  dog  almost 
seems  human.  3.  Try  only  to  see  the  bright  side.  4.  The  sun 
drove  all  the  clouds  away  that  the  wind  had  gathered.  5.  The 
expert  wrestler  can  practically  throw  his  antagonist  in  any  way 
that  he  chooses.  6.  She  had  only  been  present  three  days. 
7.  He  expressed  his  willingness  to  go  repeatedly. 

3 

Which  of  the  italicized  words  is  the  correct  one  to  use? 

1.  Let's  go  somewhere  somewheres.  2.  We  were  near  nearly 
starved.  3.  I  sure  surely  thought  we  should  founder.  4.  The 
car  rides  ea^y  easily.  5.  How  beautiful  beautifully  the  lake 
looks.  6.  You  will  find  the  book  in  the  library  someplace  some- 
where. 7.  Hurry!  I'm  nearly  near  starved.  8.  Did  you  sleep 
good  well?  9.  "How  are  you  feeling,  Jim.-^"  I  asked.  '* Fine 
finely,''  he  replied.  10.  Our  patient  says  he  is  feeling  bad  badly 
again.  11.  I  don't  want  no  any  dinner.  12.  We  won  the  game 
easy  easily  enough.  13.  Like  likely  as  not  we'll  meet  them  on 
the  way.  14.  You  didn't  have  but  only  three.  15.  Doesn't  she 
sing  sweet  sweetly!  16.  I've  got  something  awful  awfully  tragic 
to  tell  you.  17.  Did  I  have  a  good  time?  I  sure  surely  did, 
18.  There  was  were  four  of  us  in  all. 


Keeping  in  mind  the  rules  for  spelling,  form  adverbs  from 
the  following:  awful,  capital,  clumsy,  comical,  apology, 
athlete,  accident,  annual,  immense,  brute,  enthusiastic. 


Give  a  brief  talk  to  the  class  on  one  of  the  following  topics: 
(1)  Adverbs,  and  how  they  are  used;  (2)  Common  errors  in 
the  use  of  adverbs. 


vn 

VERBS 

The  verb  is  the  predicate-forming  part  of  speech,  with- 
out which  no  assertion  can  be  made,  no  question  asked,  no 
command  given.  It  is  Hke  a  locomotive,  lacking  which  the 
freight  cars  and  passenger  coaches  of  speech  cannot  move. 
This  we  learn  at  an  early  age,  and  also  that  it  often  takes  a 
number  of  verbs  working  together  to  set  in  motion  even  a 
short  sentence  —  just  as  sometimes  two  or  more  engines 
are  necessary  to  haul  a  train  up  a  steep  grade.  Usually 
in  such  cases  there  is  one  principal  verb,  which  ordinarily 
comes  last,  the  rest  being  but  helpers,  or  auxiliaries,  as  they 
are  called.  In  the  sentence  It  must  have  been  snoiving,  the 
principal  verb  sncmnng  is  assisted  by  the  three  auxiliaries 
must,  have,  and  been.  Such  a  combination,  however,  is  com- 
monly thought  of  as  a  single  verb.  We  may  say  correctly, 
**  The  predicate  of  this  sentence  is  the  verb  must  have  been 
snowing,^*  or  "  The  predicate  of  this  sentence  is  the  verb 
phrase  must  have  been  snowing.''     (See  Exercise  1.) 

We  have  noted  that  nouns,  pronouns,  adverbs,  and  ad- 
jectives may  be  made  to  express  different  meanings  through 
inflection.  Man  is  thus  inflected  into  men,  sweet  into 
sweeter,  each  inflection  producing  a  new  shade  of  thought. 
Verbs  also  have  inflected  forms.  Thus  we  have  not  only 
fly  but  flies,  flew,  flown,  and  flying.  By  means  of  such  in- 
flections and  by  means  of  auxiliaries  a  verb  can  be  changed 
in  many  ways  to  make  it  fit  neatly  into  this  sentence  and 
that,   and    express    various   shades    of    meaning.     In    this 

376 


VERBS 


377 


way  it  expresses  person,  nixmber,  tense,  voice,  and  mood. 
Conjugating  a  verb  means  giving  all  its  forms.  Perhaps 
the  simplest  way  to  master  the  little  vocabulary  of  terms 
used  in  talking  about  verbs,  terms  that  must  be  employed 
in  explaining  how  to  use  verbs  correctly,  will  be  to  conjugate 
a  typical  verb.  Such  a  display,  serving  as  a  pattern,  will 
at  least  be  convenient  for  reference. 


CONJUGATION  OF  THE  VERB  HELP 
Principal  parts:  help,  helped,  helped 


Indicative  Mood 

ACTIVE   VOICE 

Present  tense 

passive  voice 

11  help 

I  am  helped 

you  help 

you  are  helped 

he  helps 

he  is  helped 

we  help 

we  are  helped 

you  help 

you  are  helped 

they  help 

Past  tense 

they  are  helped 

I  helped 

I  was  helped 

you  helped 

you  were  helped 

he  helped 

he  was  helped 

we  helped 

, 

we  were  helped 

you  helped 

you  were  helped 

they  helped 

they  were  helped 

1  The  pronouns  are  used  to  indicate  person, 
substitute  shcy  it,  or  any  appropriate  noun. 


Instead  of  he  we  may 


378  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

Future  tense 

I  shall  help  •  I  shall  be  helped 

you  will  help  you  will  be  helped 

he  will  help  he  will  be  helped 

we  shall  help  we  shall  be  helped 

you  will  help  you  will  be  helped 

they  will  help  they  will  be  helped 

Present  perfect  tense 

I  have  helped  I  have  been  helped 

you  have  helped  you  have  been  helped 

he  has  helped  he  has  been  helped 

we  have  helped  we  have  been  helped 

you  have  helped  you  have  been  helped 

they  have  helped  they  have  been  helped 

Past  perfect  tense 

I  had  helped  I  had  been  helped 

you  had  helped  you  had  been  helped 

he  had  helped  he  had  been  helped 

we  had  helped  we  had  been  helped 

you  had  helped  you  had  been  helped 

they  had  helped  they  had  been  helped 

Future  perfect  tense 

I  shall  have  helped  I  shall  have  been  helped 

you  will  have  helped  you  will  have  been  helped 

he  will  have  helped  he  will  have  been  helped 

we  shall  have  helped  we  shall  have  been  helped 

you  will  have  helped  you  will  have  been  helped 

they  will  have  helped  they  will  have  been  helped 

Imper.\tive  Mood 
Present  tense 
help  be  helped 


VERBS  a7j9 

Subjunctive  Mood 

Present  tense 
if  1 1,  you,  he  help  if  I,  you,  he  be  helped 

if  we,  you,  they  help  if  we,  you,  they  be  helped 

Past  tense 
if  I,  you,  he  helped  if  I,  you,  he  were  helped 

if  we,  you,  they  helped  if  we,  you,  they  were  helped 

Present  perfect  tense 

if  I,  you,  he  have  helped  if  I,  you,  he  have  been  helped 

if  we,  you,  they  have  helped      if  we,  you,  they  have  been  helped 

Past  perfect  tense 

if  I,  you,  he  had  helped  if  I,  you,  he  had  been  helped 

if  we,  you,  they  had  helped         if  we,  you,  they  had  been  helped 

Infinitives 
active:  Present,  to  help;  perfect,  to  have  helped 
passive:  Present,  to  be  helped;   perfect,  to  have  been  helped 

Participles 

active:   Present,  helping;    past,  helped;   perfect,  having  helped 
passive:  Present,  being  helped;  past,  helped;  perfect,  having  been 
helped 

Gerund 
helping 

The  terms  person  and  number  are  already  familiar  through 
our  study  of  nouns  and  pronouns.     Not  all  verbs  have  dif- 

1  The  if  is  not  a  part  of  the  verb,  but  it  is  commonly  found  intro- 
ducing a  subjunctive. 


380  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

ferent  forms  to  indicate  person  and  number;  but  when  there 
are  such  forms,  care  should  be  taken  to  employ  the  right 
ones,  for  thus  runs  the  rule:  A  verb  agrees  with  its  sub- 
ject in  person  and  number.  We  do  not  say  /  helps  but 
/  help,  for  help  is  the  first  person  form  of  the  verb.  Sim- 
ilarly we  do  not  say  He  were  present  but  He  was  present, 
was  being  the  singular  form  of  the  verb. 

Tense  means  time.     Through  inflection  and  through  em- 
ploying auxiliaries,  six  different  kinds  of  time  are  expressed. 

Present:  I  help  Present  perfect:  I  have  helped 

Past:  I  helped  Past  perfect:   I  had  helped 

Future:  I  shall  help  Future  perfect:   I  shall  have  helped 

Present,  past,  and  future  need  no  explanation,  for  they  are 
words  that  we  employ  commonly.  Present  perfect  means 
completed  at  the  time  the  assertion  is  made,  past  perfect 
means  completed  prior  to  the  time  the  assertion  is  made, 
and  future  perfect  means  completed  at  some  time  after  the 
assertion  is  made.  Perfect,  then,  means  simply  completed; 
present,  past,  and  future  are  added  merely  to  give  the  time 
of  completion.  ^ 

What   is   meant    by   voice    is    shown    in    the    following 
sentences : 

I  shot  the  bear. 

The  bear  was  shot  by  me. 

These  two  sentences  state  the  same  fact,  but  in  different 
ways.  The  subject  7,  in  the  first  sentence,  is  represented  as 
the  actor  or  doer;  in  the  second  sentence  the  subject  bear 
is  not  represented  as  acting  but  as  acted  upon,  or  as  receiv- 
ing the  action.  The  verb  in  the  first  sentence  is  said  to  be 
in  the  active  voice.  The  verb  in  the  second  sentence  is 
said  to  be  in  the  passive  voice.  Not  all  verbs  can  be  used 
in  the  passive  voice.  For  example,  we  say  Day  daiimed, 
but  we  do  not  say  Day  was  dawned.     Here  is  a  display  call- 


VERBS  381 

ing  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  active  forms  and  the  pas- 
sive differ  from  one  another: 


Active  voice  Passive  voice 

Present:  I  help  I  am  helped 

Past:  I  helped  I  was  helped 

Future:  I  shall  help  I  shall  be  helped 

Present  perfect:   I  have  helped  I  have  been  helped 

Past  perfect:   I  had  helped  I  had  been  helped 
Future  perfect :  I  shall  have  helped         I  shall  have  been  helped 

Mood  means  manner.  There  are  three  moods,  the  in- 
dicative, the  imperative,  and  the  subjunctive.  They  are 
illustrated  in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  Indicative:  You  are  going. 

2.  Indicative:  Are  you  going? 

3.  Imperative:  Go,  sir. 

4.  Subjunctive:   I  wish  he  were  going, 

5.  Subjunctive:  If  I  were  he,  I'd  go. 

All  five  sentences  have  to  do  with  the  idea  of  going,  but  the 
mood  or  manner  is  not  the  same  in  all.  The  first  makes  a 
plain  statement  in  the  ordinary,  straightforward  manner. 
There  is  no  doubt  expressed;  it  is  stated  as  a  certainty  that 
the  person  represented  by  the  pronoun  You  is  going.  The 
verb  in  this  sentence  is  in  the  indicative  mood,  the  mood 
employed  in  making  statements  of  fact  and  also  in  asking 
questions.  The  imperative  mood,  represented  by  the  verb 
Go  in  the  third  sentence,  needs  no  explanation.  It  is  the 
mood  of  commanding  and  entreating.  But  notice  carefully 
the  fourth  and  fifth  sentences.  From  the  way  the  fourth 
sentence  reads  we  know  that  the  person  represented  by  the 
pronoun  he  is  not  going  at  all,  but  that  the  one  speaking, 
thinking  about  this  person,  merely  expresses  a  wish  for 
that  which  is  not  to  be.  /  wish^  to  be  sure,  makes  an  as- 
sertion, and  is  therefore  in  the  indicative  mood,  but  were 


382  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

going  makes  no  assertion.  It  expresses  merely  something 
thought  of.  Were  going  is  in  the  subjunctive  mood.  In 
the  fifth  sentence  a  condition  contrary  to  fact  appears, 
an  impossibility,  something  merely  imagined,  not  actually 
true.  The  verb  were  is  in  the  subjunctive.  The  subjunc- 
tive mood,  then,  is  not  the  mood  or  manner  of  plain  asser- 
tion and  question,  but  of  wishes  and  make-believe.  This 
explanation  is  incomplete,  for  the  subjunctive  is  used  in  still 
other  cases;  but  it  is  all  that  is  needed.  You  will  note  from 
the  conjugation  of  the  verb  help  that  the  subjunctive  forms 
differ  in  but  few  cases  from  the  indicative,  and  perhaps  it 
has  occurred  to  you  that  they  are  not  in  common  use.  That 
is  true. 

The  above  explanation  of  the  terms  person,  number, 
tense,  voice,  and  mood  should  aid  you  to  understand  a  little 
better  the  conjugation  of  the  specimen  verb  help.  Please 
read  through  the  entire  conjugation  again  at  this  point. 
Three  terms,  however,  remain  unexplained  —  participle,  in- 
finitive, and  gerund. 

What  is  the  infinitive?  It  is  a  most  interesting  form  of 
the  verb,  seldom  difficult  to  recognize,  since  to  usually  ac- 
companies it,  though  sometimes  the  preposition  is  omitted. 
The  infinitive  is  used  in  many  different  ways,  some  of  them 
difficult  to  explain,  but  it  may  be  defined  loosely  as  a  verbal 
noun;  for  although  it  may  have  adverbial  modifiers  and 
may  even  take  an  object,  it  can  be  used  like  a  noun,  serv- 
ing as  subject  or  object.     Notice  the  following  sentences: 

1.  To  help  was  a  great  pleasure. 

2.  To  help  the  others  was  a  great  pleasure. 

3.  I  wanted  to  help. 

4.  Every  one  should  help. 

In  the  first  sentence  the  infinitive  is  used  as  subject.  In 
the  second  sentence  it  not  only  serves  as  subject  but  takes 
an  object  —  the  others.     In  the  third  the  infinitive  is  the 


VERBS  383 

object  of  the  verb  wanted.  In  the  fourth,  with  to  omitted, 
it  aids  in  making  up  the  verb  phrase  should  help.  Because 
it  can  thus  serve  in  double  capacity,  hke  a  man  who  has 
mastered  two  trades,  the  infinitive  is  exceedingly  useful  in 
sentence-building.  But  it  has  one  weakness.  Although  it 
is  part  verb,  it  cannot,  without  the  aid  of  auxiliaries,  make 
a  statement,  ask  a  question,  or  give  a  command,  even  with 
the  help  of  a  noun.  It  merely  "  names  the  action  "  of  the 
verb,  or  gives  its  root  idea.  For  this  reason,  when  we  wish 
to  refer  to  a  verb  by  name,  we  commonly  use  its  infinitive 
form.  Thus  we  speak  of  the  verbs  to  gOy  to  have,  to  run, 
to  be. 

The  participle  may  be  defined  as  a  verbal  adjective. 
Like  the  infinitive,  it  may  take  adverbial  modifiers,  or  it 
may  have  an  object.  Like  the  infinitive,  it  is  exceedingly 
useful  in  forming  verb  phrases.  But  it  may  also  serve  like 
an  adjective,  modifying  substantives.     Here  are  illustrations: 

1.  He  has  been  helped. 

2.  The  frightened  child  ran. 

3.  The  boys,  having  done  all  that  they  could,  went  home. 

In  the  first  sentence  the  participle  helped  forms  part  of  a 
verb  phrase.  In  the  second  it  serves  as  an  adjective  modify- 
ing child.  In  the  third  the  participle  having  done  modifies 
boys.  Notice  that  it  also  has  an  object.  But  the  participle 
too  has  its  weakness.  It  cannot,  even  with  the  aid  of  a  noun, 
make  a  statement,  ask  a  question,  or  give  a  command.  To 
do  this  it  must  have  the  help  of  an  out-and-o^  '  verb. 
The  boys  having  done  all  that  they  coidd  is  not  a  c  .mplete 
sentence. 

The  gerund  is,  like  the  infinitive,  a  verbal  noun,  ending 
in  ing.  We  may  form  one  from  almost  any  verb.  Many 
gerunds  are  in  such  common  use  that,  quite  properly,  we 
regard  them  as  nouns  pure  and  simple.  In  talking  about 
the  sentence  Walking  is  good  exercise,  we  call   Walking  a 


384  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

noun,  for  no  trace  of  the  verb  is  prominent  in  the  word. 
But  in  the  sentence  Walking  rapidly  keeps  one  warm,  since 
walking,  verb-fashion,  has  an  adverbial  modifier,  we  may 
call  walking  a  gerund;  for  no  noun  takes  an  adverbial 
modifier. 

Verbs  may  be  classified  roughly  as  transitive  and  intransi- 
tive. A  verb  is  transitive  when  it  requires  an  object  to 
complete  its  meaning.  It  is  intransitive  when  no  object  is 
required. 

Transitive:  Jack  built  a  house. 
Intransitive:   The  sun  shines. 

Some  verbs  are  always  used  intransitively;  others  may  be 
used  either  way.     (See  Exercise  16.) 

Verbs  are  also  classified  as  regular  and  irregular,  accord- 
ing to  the  way  the  past  tense  and  the  past  participle  are 
formed.  A  verb  is  regular  if  its  past  tense  and  past  parti- 
ciple are  formed  by  adding  d  or  ed,  as  is  the  case  with  the 
verb  help.  Irregular  verbs  commonly  change  a  vowel  in 
the  root  or  simplest  form,  either  in  the  past  tense  or  in  the 
past  participle  or  in  both,  and  some  add  n  or  en  to  form 
the  past  participle. 

Regular:  laugh,  laughed,  laughed 
Regular:   believe,  believed,  believed 
Irregular:   eat,  ate,  eaten 
Irregular:  shake,  shook,  shaken 

There  are,  however,  many  confusing  cases,  so  that  it  is 
sometimes  difficult  to  tell  whether  a  verb  should  be  classed 
as  regular  or  irregular.  But  fortunately  this  is  of  little  im- 
portance, provided  the  principal  parts  are  known.  By 
principal  parts  we  mean  the  present,  past,  and  past  parti- 
ciple forms;  for  if  these  are  known,  the  remaining  forms  are 
easily  supplied.     (See  Exercise  2.) 


VERBS 


385 


In  addition  to  transitive  and  intransitive,  regular  and 
irregular,  still  other  terms  are  used  in  talking  about  verbs. 
We  have  already  used  the  term  auxiliary.  The  auxiliaries 
are  irregular  verbs  used  mainly  in  building  up  verb  phrases. 
With  three  exceptions  they  have  no  infinitives  and  parti- 
ciples.    Here  are  the  principal  ones: 


Present 

Past 

Past  Part. 

Present 

Past 

Past  Part. 

be  (am) 

was 

been 

do 

did 

done 

have 

had 

had 

may 

might 

can 

could 

shall 

should 

must 

will 

would 

ought 

Progressive  is  a  term  applied  to  such  forms  as  am  help- 
ing y  was  helping y  etc.,  which  represent  the  action  as  going 
on.  Here  are  the  first  person  indicative  forms  of  the  verb 
help: 


Active 
I  am  helping 
I  was  helping 
I  shall  be  helping 
I  have  been  helping 
I  had  been  helping 
I  shall  have  been  helping 


Passive 

I  am  being  helped 

I  was  being  helped 

I  shall  be  being  helped 

(Progressive  forms  are  seldom 
used  in  the  passive  except  in 
the  present,  past,  and  future.) 


Emphatic  is  a  term  applied  to  such  forms  as  do  help  and 
did  help.  The  assertion  /  do  think  he  should  tell  is  more 
emphatic  than  the  assertion  /  think  he  should  tell,  especially 
if  do  is  stressed.  But  the  so-called  emphatic  forms  are 
not  always  used  for  emphasis,  especially  when  coupled  with 
the  adverb  not.  Thus  we  say,  without  necessarily  empha- 
sizing the  assertion,  I  did  not  help. 

(Take  up  at  this  point  Exercises  1-4,  16.) 

The  following  display  may  prove  convenient  for  reference : 


386 


JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 


Verbs 


Kinds 


Forms 


How  used 


I  Transitive,  intransitive 
1  Regular,  irregular 

Voice:   active,  passive 

Mood:    indicative,  imperative,  subjunctive 

Non-modal  forms:  infinitive,  participle, 
gerund 

Tense:  present,  past,  future,  present  per- 
fect, past  perfect,  future  perfect 

Person:   first,  second,  third 

Number:   singular,  plural 

Modal  forms:  To  furnish  the  essential 
part  of  the  predicate 

Infinitives:  In  various  ways,  like  nouns, 
yet  retaining  part  of  the  force  of  verbs 

Participles:  In  various  ways,  like  adjec- 
tives, yet  retaining  part  of  the  force  of 
verbs 

Gerunds:  Like  nouns,  yet  retaining  part  of 
the  force  of  verbs 


Errors  in  the  use  of  verbs  are  very  common.  Some  are 
perhaps  excusable,  for  the  verb  is  by  far  the  most  diflScult 
part  of  speech  to  master;  but  many  are  due  to  mere  care- 
lessness. We  do  not  stop  to  think;  and  having  permitted 
ourselves  to  make  certain  errors  over  and  over  again,  the 
habit  becomes  fixed.  There  are  eight  cases  of  misuse  which 
should  receive  careful  attention. 

First  error:  We  disregard  the  rule  ivhich  states  that  the  verb 
agrees  with  its  subject  in  person  and  number,    (See  Exercise  15.) 


Right 
We  were  late. 
Were  you  late? 
There  were  two  boys  absent. 


Wrong 
We  was  late. 
Was  you  late? 
There  was  two  boys  absent. 


Errors  of  this  sort  are  usually  due  to  pure  carelessness;   we 
know  better.    We  know  that  the  introductory  adverb  there 


VERBS  387 

has  nothing  to  do  with  the  number  of  the  verb,  for  it  is  not 
the  subject.  We  know  perfectly  well  how  to  conjugate  the 
past  tense  of  the  verb.  See  how  natural  the  correct  forms 
look: 


I  was 

I  wasn't 

was  I? 

wasn't  I? 

you  were 

you  weren't 

were  you? 

weren't  you? 

he  was 

he  wasn't 

was  he? 

wasn't  he? 

we  were 

we  weren't 

were  we? 

weren't  we? 

you  were 

you  weren't 

were  you? 

weren't  you? 

they  were 

they  weren't 

were  they? 

weren't  they? 

The  rule  for  agreement  is  also  commonly  violated  when  the 
auxiliary  verb  to  do  is  employed. 

Right  Wrong 

He  doesn't  seem  happy.  He  don't  seem  happy. 

Doesn't  he  seem  happy?  Don't  he  seem  happy? 

Evidently  it  is  the  contraction  that  misleads;  for  we  never 
think  of  saying  He  do  not  seem  happy ^  nor  Do  not  he  seem 
happy? 

Second  error:  We  employ  corrupt  tense  farms ^  especially 
ain't,  hain't,  busted,  drownded,  throwed,  and  swimmed. 

The  latest  edition  of  Webster's  dictionary  brands  ainH 
as  illiterate  and  hain't  as  vulgar.  They  are,  it  is  true, 
commonly  employed  by  many  good  people  who  do  not  know 
that  there  are  better  forms,  and  by  others  who  do  not  care. 
It  is  for  each  to  decide  whether  he  will  follow  their  example 
or  will  set  them  an  example,  just  as  it  is  for  each  to  decide 
whether  he  will  comb  his  hair  and  keep  his  nails  clean. 
There  is  no  objection  whatever  to  the  use  of  contractions. 
Here  are  the  correct  forms:  Fm  not,  you're  not,  he's  not, 
2ve're  not,  they're  not;  I  haven't,  you  haven't,  he  hasn't,  we 
haven't,  they  haven't.  The  principal  parts  of  the  remaining 
four  verbs  are  as  follows: 


388  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

burst        burst  burst  throw       threw       thrown 

drown      drowned      drowned  swim        swam       swum 

To  this  class  of  errors  belongs  also  the  very  common  sub- 
stitution of  the  word  of  for  the  word  have.  Of  is  a  preposi- 
tion, not  a  verb.  Place  the  correct  forms  and  the  incorrect 
side  by  side,  and  it  seems  strange  enough  that  there  should 
ever  be  such  a  substitution. 


Right  Wrong 

He  may  have  done  it.  He  may  of  done  it. 

He  must  have  done  it.  He  must  of  done  it. 

He  should  have  done  it.  He  should  of  done  it. 

He  ought  to  have  done  it.  He  ought  to  of  done  it. 

Third  error:  Either  through  carelessness  or  through  not 
"knowing  the  principal  parts  of  verbsy  we  employ  tense  forms 
incorrectly.     (See  Exercises  5-Q.) 

For  example,  the  present  tense  is  used  for  the  past,  as 
in  the  following  sentences: 

While  we  were  hesitating,  Jim  come  along. 
He  give  Pete  a  push  and  into  the  water  he  went. 
At  first  it  was  hard,  but  we  soon  become  used  to  it. 
He  eat  his  dinner  in  silence. 

That  these  are  incorrect  forms  for  the  pj^st  tense  is  seen  at 
a  glance,  yet  how  commonly  we  hear  them.  Take  a  long 
look  at  the  principal  parts  of  these  simple  verbs: 


come 

came 

come 

give 

gave 

given 

become 

became 

become 

eat 

ate 

eaten 

Similarly  the  past  participle  is  substituted  for  the  past 
tense  form  and  the  past  tense  form  for  the  past  participle. 
First  examine  the  principal  parts  of  these  ten  verbs: 


VERBS 


389 


do 

did 

done 

begin 

began 

begun 

run 

ran 

run 

ring 

rang 

rung 

see 

saw 

seen 

shrink 

shrank 

shrunk 

sing 

sang 

sung 

spring 

sprang 

sprung 

swim 

swam 

swum 

drink 

drank 

drunk 

With  these  in  mind,  do  you  not  see  at  once  that  the  follow- 
ing sentences  are  incorrect  as  to  their  verbs? 


I  done  it. 

He  run  for  first  base. 
I  seen  him  do  it. 
We  sung  America. 
They  swum  the  river. 


It  begun  to  rain. 

Pretty  soon  the  bell  rung. 

He  shrunk  from  the  undertaking. 

He  sprung  to  the  running-board. 

We  drunk  it  all  up. 


Can  you  not  see  that  in  each  case  the  past  participle  form 
has  been  substituted  for  the  past  tense  .^^ 

Now  study  the  principal  parts  of  ten  more  verbs,  trouble- 
some in  that  they  tempt  one  to  substitute  the  past  tense 
form  for  the  past  participle. 


drive 

drove 

driven 

shake 

shook 

shaken 

take 

took 

taken 

write 

wrote 

written 

break 

broke 

broken 

hide 

hid 

hidden 

forget 

forgot 

forgotten 

freeze 

froze 

frozen 

go 

went 

gone 

steal 

stole 

stolen 

Wrong 

Tom  had  drove  them  away. 

We  had  our  pictures  took. 

This  one  is  broke. 

He  must  have  forgot. 

He  must  have  went  home. 

It  was  all  shook  to  pieces. 

He  must  have  hid. 

I  was  almost  froze. 

I  suspect  he  had  stole  it. 


Right 

Tom  had  driven  them  away. 
We  had  our  pictures  taken. 
This  one  is  broken. 
He  must  have  forgotten. 
He  must  have  gone  home. 
It  was  all  shaken  to  pieces. 
He  must  have  hidden. 
I  was  almost  frozen. 
I  suspect  he  had  stolen  it. 


390  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

One  more  case  belongs  to  this  type  of  error.  It  consists 
in  employing  the  past  tense  where  the  meaning  calls  for  the 
past  perfect,  since  the  act  described  is  completed  in  past 
time.     Here  are  examples: 

Right  Wrong 

I  wanted  very  much  to  go  to  I  wanted  very  much  to  go  to 

New  York,  for  I  had  never  been  New    York,    for   I    was   never 

there.  there. 

Before   retiring,    I    recorded  Before   retiring,    I   recorded 

in  my  diary  how  we  had  spent  in  my  diary  how  we  spent  the 

the  day.  day. 

We  had  been  in  Boston  three  We  were  in  Boston  three 
years  when  it  became  neces-  years  when  it  became  neces- 
sary for  me  to  go  to  work.  sary  for  me  to  go  to  work. 

Fourth  error:  We  confuse  the  indicative  and  subjunctive 
forms  of  the  verb  to  be.     (See  Exercise  14.) 

First  study  the  forms  of  the  two  moods  placed  side  by 
side. 

Indicative  Mood  Subjunctive  Mood 

Present  tense  ' 

I  am  we  are  if  I  be  if  we  be 

you  are  you  are  if  you  be  if  you  be 

he  is  they  are  if  he  be  if  they  be 

Past  tense 

I  was  we  were  if  I  were  if  we  were 

you  were  you  were  if  you  were  if  you  were 

he  was  they  were  if  he  were  if  they  were 

Note  the  differences.  In  the  present  subjunctive  there  is 
but  one  form,  and  the  same  is  true  of  the  past  subjunctive, 
whereas  in  the  indicative  mood  there  are  five  forms.  But 
the  indicative  is  in  such  constant  use  that  these  forms  are 
very  familiar.     Evidently  confusing  the  two  moods  is  due 


VERBS  391 

mainly  to  inability  to  tell  when  the  subjunctive  should  be 
employed.  One  error,  however,  must  be  due  to  pure  care- 
lessness. This  error  is  illustrated  in  the  sentence.  Be  you 
going  to  the  game?  The  correct  way  of  expressing  the  ques- 
tion is  Are  you  going  to  the  game?  It  is  a  straightforward 
question  and  there  is  no  reason  why  the  subjunctive  should 
be  employed.  But  the  most  common  error  is  that  in  which 
were  and  was  are  confused.  If  I  was  and  if  I  were  do  not 
mean  the  same  thing.  The  former  expresses  a  simple  con- 
dition in  past  time;  the  latter  does  not  necessarily  have 
anything  to  do  with  past  time,  but  sets  forth  that  which 
is  merely  thought  of,  and  may  be  a  condition  contrary  to 
fact.     Note  these  sentences: 

If  the  day  was  clear,  they  must  have  enjoyed  the  trip. 
If  the  day  were  clear,  they  might  enjoy  the  trip. 

The  first  sentence  states  merely  what,  probably,  happened 
under  a  given  condition.  It  has  to  do  with  past  time.  It 
does  not  suppose  something  that  is  not  true.  In  the  second 
sentence  there  is  an  element  of  make-believe.  The  day, 
we  know  at  once,  is  not  pleasant,  but  the  speaker  imagines 
what  might  happen  were  the  day  different.  Thus  we  say 
/  wish  I  were  strong ,  not  /  wish  I  was  strong.  The  follow- 
ing rule  covers  the  use  of  the  two  moods  in  their  past  tense 
forms: 

Use  the  past  tense  of  the  indicative  to  express  past  time. 
Use  the  past  tense  of  the  subjunctive  to  express  the  idea  of 
uncertainty,  extreme  doubt,  or  condition  contrary  to  fact. 

Fifth  error:  We  confuse  shall  and  will,  should  and  would, 
may  and  can.     (See  Exercises  8-13.) 

Shall  and  will  perform  double  duty,  sometimes  expressing 
future  time  and  sometimes  volition.  By  volition  is  meant 
an  act  of  the  will.  When  we  promise  to  do  a  thing,  or 
threaten  to  do  it,  or  express  a  determination  to  do  it,  we 
are  exercising  the  will.     That  is,  we  are  exercising  volition. 


392  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

That  there  is  a  difference  between  expressing  future  time 
and  expressing  voUtion  is  readily  seen  in  the  following 
sentences : 

Future  time  Volition 

I  shall  leave  at  seven  o'clock.  I  will  leave  at  seven  o'clock. 

You  will  leave  at  seven  o'clock.  You  shall  leave  at  seven  o'clock. 

He  will  leave  at  seven  o'clock.  He  shall  leave  at  seven  o'clock. 

/  yyill  leave  means  /  ^promise  to  leave;  You  shall  leave  means 
I  am  determined  that  you  shall,  leave,  or  else  /  promise  thai 
you  may  leave.  All  three  of  the  sentences  in  the  right-hand 
column  express  acts  of  the  will  on  the  part  of  the  speaker. 
The  three  sentences  in  the  left-hand  column  merely  express 
future  time.  They  are  definite  statements  of  future  cer- 
tainties, or  what  the  speaker  assumes  to  be  certainties. 
Three  rules  cover  nearly  all  troublesome  cases: 

I.  To  express  a  simple  future,  use  shall  with  the  first  person, 
will  with  the  second  and  third. 

n.  To  express  volition,  use  will  with  the  first  person,  shall 
with  the  second  and  third. 

III.  In  questions,  use  shall  with  the  first  person  always. 
With  the  second  person  and  the  third,  use  shall  when  shall 
is  expected  in  the  answer  and  will  when  will  is  expected  in  the 
answer. 

Thus  we  have  the  following  conjugations: 

Future  time  Volition 

I  shall  we  shall  I  will  we  will 

you  will  you  will  you  shall  you  shall 

he  will  they  will  he  shall  they  shall 

ShaU  in  answer  WiU  in  answer 

shall  I?  shall  we?  shall  I?  shall  we? 

shall  you?  shall  you?  will  you?  will  you? 

shall  he?  shall  they?  will  he?  will  they? 

(See  Exercises  8,  9.) 


VERBS  393 

Should  and  would  are  really  the  past  tense  forms  of  shall 
and  will,  though  we  seldom  think  of  them  as  such.  Should 
is  sometimes  used  to  express  the  idea  of  duty,  as  in  the  sen- 
tence We  should  be  charitable;  and  would  is  sometimes  used 
to  express  the  idea  of  accustomed  action,  as  in  the  sentence 
We  would  hear  the  swallows  chattering  in  the  big  chimney. 
When  thus  used,  they  cause  no  trouble.  But  they  are  also 
employed  like  shall  and  will  and  in  a  general  way  follow  the 
same  rules,  should  corresponding  to  shall  and  would  to  will. 
That  is,  would  is  used  with  the  first  person  and  should  with 
the  second  and  third  to  denote  volition;  otherwise  should 
is  used  with  the  first  person  and  would  with  second  and  third. 
This  rule  does  not  always  hold,  but  fortunately  the  excep- 
tions give  no  trouble  and  need  not  be  stated.  Errors  do 
occur,  however,  in  indirect  discourse.  By  indirect  dis- 
course is  meant  reported  statements  of  another  where  the 
exact  words  are  not  given.  But  illustrations  are  better  than 
definitions. 

Direct  discourse:   He  said,  "I  shall  be  sixteen  tomorrow." 
Indirect  discourse:    He  said  he  should  be  sixteen  tomorrow. 
Direct  discourse:   He  said,  "I  will  help  him." 
Indirect  discourse:    He  said  he  would  help  him. 

Notice  that,  in  turning  a  sentence  from  direct  discourse  to 
indirect,  shall  becomes  should  and  vrill  becomes  would. 
Although  there  are  exceptions,  the  following  rule  is  a  safe 
one  to  follow: 

Where  shall  would  be  used  in  direct  discourse,  use  shall 
or  should  in  indirect  discourse.  Where  will  would  be  used  in 
direct  discourse,  use  will  or  would  in  indirect  discourse.  (See 
Exercises  10,  11.) 

Can  denotes  ability.  When  a  boy  says  I  can  do  it,  he 
means  that  he  is  able  to  do  it.  When  he  asks  Can  I  do  it? 
he  asks  your  opinion  in  regard  to  his  ability  to  do  it.  May 
denotes  a  wish,  as  in  the  sentence  May  you  have  a  good  time. 


394 


JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 


hcyys.  Sometimes  it  denotes  possibility,  as  in  the  sentence 
He  may  he  in  the  garden,  hut  1  am  not  sure.  Its  most  com- 
mon use,  however,  and  the  one  which  leads  to  confusion 
between  can  and  may,  is  to  denote  permission.  May  I  do 
it?  means  Will  you  permit  me  to  do  it?  Hence  the  rule: 
Use  can  to  denote  ability,  may  to  denote  permission.  (See 
Exercises  12,  13.) 

Sixth  error:  We  confuse  verhs  similar  in  form  hut  different 
in  meaning.     (See  Exercise  7.) 

Here  are  verbs  which  call  for  close  attention: 


Rivers  flow. 
Birds  fly. 

To  lay  means  to  deposit  or  put  down. 
To  lie  is  to  tell  a  falsehood. 
This  verb  means  to  recline. 
Things  lost  cannot  be  found. 
When  a  thing  is  loose,  it  needs  tighten- 
ing, perhaps. 
To  set  means  to  place. 
We  sit  in  chairs;  we  do  not  set  in  them. 


flow 

flowed 

flowed 

fly 

flew 

flown 

lay 

laid 

laid 

He 

Hed 

lied 

lie 

lay 

lain 

lose 

lost 

lost 

loose 

loosed 

loosed 

set 

set 

set 

sit 

sat 

sat 

How  simple  it  is  to  point  out  these  distinctions,  yet  how 
easy  it  is  to  forget  them  when  talking  or  writing! 

Seventh  error:  We  forget  that  the  verb  to  be  (am,  was,  been) 
is  intransitive  and  cannot  take  an  object. 


Right 
It  was  he. 

It  must  have  been  they. 
He  thought  it  was  we. 


Wrong 
It  was  him. 

It  must  have  been  them. 
He  thought  it  was  us. 


Unfortunately  this  error  is  so  common  that  the  incorrect 
forms  sound,  to  many  ears,  correct.  But  that  does  not 
make  them  correct. 

Eighth  error:    Through  careless  placing  of  participles,  tee 
sometimes  say  what  we  do  not  mean.     (See  Exercise  17.) 


VERBS  395 

Clinging  to  the  Italian's  arm  I  saw  a  little  monkey. 
I  saw  a  little  monkey  clinging  to  the  Italian's  arm. 

These  two  sentences  do  not  mean  the  same  thing.  The 
participle  should  be  so  placed  that  there  can  be  no  doubt 
concerning  what  substantive  it  modifies. 

EXERCISES 


Pick  out  the  verbs.  When  the  parts  of  a  verb  phrase  are 
scattered,  be  careful  not  to  overlook  any  of  the  auxiliaries. 

Pick  out  the  principal  verb  in  each  verb  phrase;  that  is,  pick 
out  the  verb  which  names  the  action. 

Pick  out  the  noun  or  pronoun  which  goes  with  each  verb, 
serving  as  its  subject. 

1.  Rain  fell  during  the  night.  2.  The  music  grew  louder  and 
came  nearer.  3.  Where  have  you  been?  4.  Should  this  be 
returned  to  the  owner?  5.  Take  this  to  Mr.  Brown,  if  you  are 
going  by  his  house.  6.  Don't  drop  it.  7.  There  are  several 
who  cannot  go.  8.  What  did  he  say  to  that?  9.  You  should 
not  go  if  you  think  it  might  offend  the  others.  10.  We  might 
have  guessed  that  the  green  boughs  would  not  burn.  11.  May 
it  not  be  true  that  he  has  been  unavoidably  detained? 
12.  "  Go!"  shouted  the  starter,  and  off  they  flew.  13.  The 
gas-lamps  were  being  lighted  on  the  bridge,  and  Mr.  Trail  was 
getting  into  his  street-coat  for  his  call  on  Mr.  Brown,  when 
Tammy  put  his  head  in  at  the  door  of  the  restaurant. 

14.  My  Friends:  No  one,  not  in  my  position,  can  appreciate 
the  sadness  I  feel  at  this  parting.  To  this  people  I  owe  all  that 
I  am.  Here  I  have  lived  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  century; 
here  my  children  were  born,  and  here  one  of  them  lies  buried. 
I  know  not  how  soon  I  shall  see  you  again.  A  duty  devolves 
upon  me  which  is,  perhaps,  greater  than  that  which  has  de- 
volved upon  any  other  man  since  the  days  of  Washington. 
He  never  would  have  succeeded  except  by  the  aid  of  Divine 
Providence,  upon  which  he  at  all  times  relied.     I  feel  that  I 


396 


JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 


cannot  succeed  without  the  same  Divine  aid  which  sustained 
him,  and  on  the  same  Almighty  Being  I  place  my  rehance  for 
support;  and  I  hope  you,  my  friends,  will  all  pray  that  I  may 
receive  that  Divine  assistance,  without  which  I  cannot  succeed, 
but  with  which  success  is  certain.  Again  I  bid  you  an  afiPec- 
tionate  farewell. 

Lincoln's  Farewell  to  the  Citizens  of  Springfield 

2 

Study  the  following  table  so  thoroughly  that,  if  a  jyrincipal 
'part  of  any  verb  is  given,  you  can  vnthout  hesitation  supply 
the  remaining  parts. 


Present 

Past 

Past  Part. 

Present 

Past 

Past  Part. 

am 

was 

been 

lie 

lay 

lain 

begin 

began 

begun 

loose 

loosed 

loosed 

bite 

bit 

bitten 

lose 

lost 

lost 

break 

broke 

broken 

ride 

rode 

ridden 

burst 

burst 

burst 

ring 

rang 

rung 

come 

came 

come 

run 

ran 

run 

do 

did 

done 

see 

saw 

seen 

drink 

drank 

drunk 

set 

set 

set 

drive 

drove 

driven 

shake 

shook 

shaken 

drown 

drowned    drowned 

shrink 

shrank 

shrunk 

eat 

ate 

eaten 

sing 

sang 

sung 

flow 

flowed 

flowed 

sink 

sank 

sunk 

fly 

flew 

flown 

sit 

sat 

sat 

forget 

forgot 

forgotten 

spring 

sprang 

sprung 

freeze 

froze 

frozen 

steal 

stole 

stolen 

give 

gave 

given 

swear 

swore 

sworn 

go 

went 

gone 

swim 

swam 

swum 

hear 

heard 

heard 

take 

took 

taken 

hide 

hid 

hidden 

throw 

threw 

thrown 

lay 

laid 

laid 

write 

wrote 

written 

Conjugate  the  verb  take  in  the  indicative  moody  active  voice, 
all  tenses. 


VERBS  397 

Conjugate  the  verb  hide  in  the  indicative  mood,  passive  voice, 
all  tenses. 

Conjugate  the  verb  fly  in  the  indicative  mood,  active  voice, 
all  tenses,  employing  the  progressive  forms. 

Conjugate  the  verb  forget  in  the  indicative  mood,  active  voice, 
present  and  past  tenses,  employing  the  emphatic  forms. 


Give  the  following  forms,  using  the  indicative  mood. 

1.  Past  tense,  active  voice,  of  come,  give,  become,  eat,  lead,  do, 
ring,  shrink,  sink,  spring,  throw. 

2.  Past  tense,  passive  voice,  of  drown,  throw,  hide,  sink. 

S.  Present  perfect  tense,  active  voice,  of  do,  shake,  take,  ride,  i-'- 

4.  Past  perfect  tense,  active  voice,  of  drive,  eat,  freeze,  shrink, 
hide,  go,  take,  write,  begin,  come,  lay. 

5.  Past  perfect,  passive  voice,  of  break,  forget,  lay,  shake,  bite.  ^ 

6.  Present  and  past  participles  of  become,  begin,  write,  bite, 
forget,  lay,  lie,  lose,  swim.     ' 

Change  I  wasn't  happy  to  an  interrogative  sentence  and  substi- 
tute you  for  I.  Change  I  don't  mind  to  an  interrogative  sentence  and 
substitute  he  for  I. 


Insert  verbs  as  indicated,  using  active  voice  forms  unless 
otherwise  directed. 

1.  Soon  he  (past  of  become)  suspicious.  2.  We  (past  of  begin) 
where  they  (past  perfect  of  begin).  3.  If  you  (passive  past  per- 
fect of  bite),  you  would  not  like  it.  4.  Did  you  say  that  his  arm 
(passive  past  of  break)?  5.  We  were  delayed  by  a  (past  parti- 
ciple of  burst)  tire.  6.  They  (past  of  come)  within  an  inch  of 
hitting  the  traffic-policeman.  7.  He  (past  of  do)  it;  I  (past  of 
see)  him  when  he  (past  progressive  of  do)  it.  8.  Did  you  say  that 
he  (past  of  drink)  after  all  the  rest  (past  perfect  of  drink)? 
9.  After  we  (past  perfect  of  drive)  another  mile,  we  turned 
back.  10.  He  looked  like  a  (past  participle  of  drown)  rat. 
11.  The  servants  (past  of  eat)  after  the  others  (past  perfect  of 


S98  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

eat).  12.  The  boy  (past  perfect  of  forget)  all  about  it.  13.  My 
fingers  (progressive  present  of  freeze);  aren't  yours  almost 
(past  participle  of  freeze)?  14.  It  happened  after  we  (past 
perfect  of  go)  for  help.  15.  Suddenly  he  (past  of  give)  a  shout. 
16.  He  (past  of  run)  for  the  nearest  fire-alarm  box.  17.  There 
we  (past  of  sit)  till  the  train  (past  of  come).  18.  After  we  (past 
perfect  of  shake)  the  rug,  we  (past  of  sing)  for  joy.  19.  The 
sinker  (past  of  sink).  20.  The  dog  (past  of  spring)  at  the  man 
who  (past  perfect  of  steal)  the  coat.  21.  What  (past  of  am)  you 
going  to  say.'^ 


Correct  the  following  sentences: 

1.  After  lunch  we  sung  the  latest  popular  songs.  2.  He  give 
ten  dollars  for  the  dog  yesterday;  I  beared  him  say  so.  3.  When 
the  storm  broke,  we  all  run  for  shelter.  4.  As  I  done  that,  he 
looks  at  John  and  says,  "Ain't  he  clever?"  5.  They  would  of 
drove  on  for  another  hour,  had  it  not  have  been  for  the  rain. 
6.  I  says  to  him,  *'Be  you  sure?"  and  he  says,  *'0f  course  I 
be."  7.  Isn't  it  about  time  we  begun  to  get  ready?  8.  Do  you 
know  when  he  come  to  town?  9.  She  thanked  him  kindly  for 
the  favors  he  done  her.  10.  I  am  not  sure  where  they  are,  but 
they  may  have  went  shopping.  11.  I  done  the  best  I  could. 
12.  He  thinks  he  must  of  left  it  in  the  car.  13.  If  he  had  have 
known,  he  would  have  consented.  14.  The  message  was  from 
her  father,  who  just  arrived  from  Denver.  15.  After  I  finished 
Oliver  Twist,  I  begun  Barnahy  Rudge.  16.  You  had  ought  to 
of  seen  us.  17.  This  was  the  first  time  I  was  ever  elected  to 
oflSce.  18.  Hey,  Bill,  did  you  do  your  algebra  yet?  19.  After 
we  were  standing  in  line  nearly  an  hour,  we  succeeded  in  getting 
tickets.  20.  I  couldn't  imagine  what  happened  to  mother,  for 
she  had  promised  to  meet  me. 

7 

Rivers  flow,  birds  fly.  When  we  drop  a  glove,  we  are 
apt  to  lose  it.  We  lie  down,  not  lay  down.  We  sit  down, 
not  set  down.    The  sun,  however,  sets. 


VERBS  399 

Supply  the  correct  forms  in  the  following  sentences: 

(Flow,  fly)  Where  did  the  river  formerly — ?  How  long  has 
it  —  in  its  present  channel?  If  we  say  that  the  brook  fairly 
flew  by  the  door,  do  we  mean  simply  that  it  —  by  the  door? 
Will  the  water  that  has  —  by  the  mill  never  return?  John  care- 
lessly said  that  the  river  over —  its  banks  last  spring.  Of  ^ 
course  he  meant  that  it  —  its  banks. 

(Lay,  lie)  I  think  I  will  —  down  for  a  few  minutes.  Please — 
the  blankets  out  in  the  orchard  where  you  —  them  yesterday. 
How  often  have  I  —  there  this  summer.  Where  is  my  book? 
I  must  have  mis —  it.  Perhaps  it  —  on  the  library  table.  I 
tliink  you  will  find  it  —  there.  If  any  one  should  call,  do  not  ^ 
say  that  I  am  not  at  home;  for  that  would  be  — . 

(Lose,  loose)  I  am  always  —  things.  This  is  the  third  thimble 
I  have  lost  within  a  year.  How  much  time  one  —  while  hunt- 
ing for  lost  things.  Do  you  ever  —  things?  —  things  is  one  of 
my  worst  failings.  By  the  way,  isn't  this  bolt  a  little  — ?  Please 
get  a  wrench  and  tighten  it.  But  do  not  get  it  too  tight;  it  ^ 
should  be  a  little  — .  )^0 

(Set,  sit)     He  has  —  his  heart  on  getting  the  prize,  and  has 

—  up  night  after  night  to  study.     Do  —  down  and  let  me  tell 
you  all  about  it.    -^  your  hat  on  the  table.     You  wish  a  fan? 

—  still  and  let  me  get  one.  I  ought  not  to  be  —  here  using  one 
myself  without  offering  you  one  too.  Will  you  excuse  me  a 
minute?  Just  before  you  came  into  the  -- —  room,  I  -^  something 
on  the  stove.  I'm  afraid  that  if  it  -^  there  much  longer  there 
will  be  trouble.  What  a  hard  cold  you  have!  I  mistrust  you  r 
caught  it  by  ^  on  the  grass  while  John  was  —  out  the  shrubs. 

(Lay,  lie)  The  tree  has  -r  there  many  years.  Let  the  book 
-^r-  where  it  is.  I  think  I  have  — -^here  long  enough.  We  —  at 
anchor  till  the  storm  blew  over.  In  which  direction  -7—  the  east? 
The  grounds  were  beautifully  ---  out.  When  the  culprits  were 
caught,  they  —  the  blame  on  others.  Speckle  has  — ^^  an  egg  in 
the  box  that  ^  by  the  stable  door.  Will  you  not  —  down?  He 
said  that  he  would  —  down  for  a  while;  so  we  —  his  blanket  in 
the  shade.  His  only  fault,  he  said,  —  in  the  one  word  ambition. 
Where  the  tree  falleth,  there  must  it  —.  Bantam  lake  —  up 
among  the  Berkshires. 


400  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

8 

Show  that  the  meaning  of  each  of  the  following  sentences 
changes  according  as  shall  or  will  is  supplied. 

1.  —  you  attend  the  concert?  2.  We  —  not  disappoint  you. 
3.  There  —  be  no  laughter.  4.  —  they  wait  for  us?  5.  He  — 
read  the  book.  6.  —  he  provide  lunch?  7.  I  —  drown  if  you 
do  not  help  me.  8.  He  —  drown  if  you  do  not  help  him. 
9.  You  —  drown  if  no  one  helps  you.     10.  I  —  be  king.     11.  We 

—  reach  New  York  before  eight.  12.  I  —  contribute  ten  dol- 
lars.    13.  —  you  try  for  honors?     14.  He  reports  that  the  train 

—  wait  for  us.  15.  What  —  Mrs.  Grundy  say?  16.  —  Kate 
go  too?     17.  They  —  see  what  I  can  do.     18.  He  says  that  you 

—  be  left  behind.  19.  He  says  that  Tom  —  never  take  his  boat 
again.     20.  The  heavens  —  reveal  his  iniquity,  and  the  earth 

—  rise  up  against  him. 

9 

Supply  shall  or  will,  whichever  is  correct,  in  the  following 
sentences.  Remember  that  in  asking  a  question  shall  should 
always  be  used  with  the  first  person.  With  this  exception,  use 
shall  when  shall  is  expected  in  the  answer,  will  ivhen  will  is 
expected  in  the  answer. 

1.  We; —  need  umbrellas,  I  think.  2.  —  we  need  umbrellas, 
do  you  think?  3.  I  —  be  sixteen  tomorrow.  4.  How  —  I 
know  where  to  go?  5.  I  think  they  —  be  back  before  dark. 
6.  I  —  hope  to  see  you  often.    7.  We  —  surely  be  lost.    8.  You 

—  surely  be  lost.  9.  They  —  surely  be  lost.  10.  How  dark  it 
grows!  We  —  have  rain  before  long.  11.  Do  you  think  we  — 
have  rain  before  long?  12.  I  think  we  —  be  asked  to  remain. 
13,  I  —  be  greatly  obliged  if  you  —  give  Fido  a  bone.  14.  If 
you  —  call  at  eight,  I  promise  that  you  —  find  nie  at  home. 
15.  I  —  have  completed  the  task  by  Friday.  10.  You  —  pardon 
me,  I  am  sure.  17.  —  you  be  able  to  accompany  us?  18.  — 
we  be  allowed  to  take  the  books  home?  19.  How  —  we  decide 
the  question?  20.  John  tells  me  that  you  —  be  unable  to  go. 
21.  It  is  said  that  they  —  starve  if  food  is  not  sent.     22.  Ac- 


VERBS  401 

cording  to  the  weather  report  we  —  have  rain  tomorrow. 
23.  —  we  have  time  to  purchase  tickets?  24.  What  —  you  do 
if  he  decHnes  to  help  us.'^ 

10 

Supply  should  or  would,  whichever  you  think  correct,  in  the 

follovnng  sentences: 

1,1  —  like  to  help,  and  I  —  if  I  could.  2.  I  —  be  afraid  to 
ride  such  a  spirited  horse.  3.  I  —  be  sorry  to  see  him  fail. 
4.  I  —  send  him  aid  if  I  thought  he  —  accept  it.  5.  Had  I 
been  in  his  position,  I  —  have  done  the  same.  6.  Had  we  de- 
layed a  minute  longer,  we  —  have  lost  everything.  7.  I  — 
like  to  know  who  that  man  is.  8.  We  —  be  delighted  to  have 
you  come.     9.  I  —  prefer  to  have  you  go.     10.  At  this  point  I 

—  like  to  ask  a  question.     11.  If  you  were  to  call  after  six,  you 

—  find  him  at  home.  12.  If  we  were  to  start  now,  —  we  find 
him  at  home?  13.  I  —  as  lief  do  one  thing  as  the  other. 
14.  —  we  tell  all  that  we  know?  15.  If  we  were  to  go  now,  — 
we  have  the  pleasure  of  your  company?  16.  —  you  think  that 
three  quarts  —  be  enough?  17.  What  —  we  do  if  the  water 
supply  —  fail?  18.  If  I  were  to  offend  him,  I  —  never  forgive 
myself.  19.  —  you  advise  me  to  accept?  20.  Even  if  I  missed 
the  train,  I  —  be  able  to  walk  home. 

11 

Supply  should  or  would,  whichever  seems  correct,  in  the 
following  sentences: 

1.  He  said  he  —  be  sixteen  tomorrow.     2.  He  said  that  you 

—  go  if  there  was  room.  3.  He  asked  if  I  —  take  him  too. 
4.  He  admitted  that    he  —  enjoy  the  ride.     5.  I  thought  I 

—  surely  fail.  6.  You  thought  you  —  surely  fail.  7.  I  hoped 
that  I  —  not  be  asked.    8.  I  know  I  —  like  golf.    9.  I  know  you 

—  like  golf.  10.  If  you  rescue  the  crew,  you  —  be  rewarded. 
11.  We  planned  that  he  —  go  by  train.  12.  He  promised  that 
the  next  lesson  —  be  better  prepared.  13.  He  thought  he  — 
be  forced  to  tell  the  secret  in  spite  of  everything.    14.  I  thought 


402  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

I  —  not  like  rowing,  but  I  do.  15.  Were  I  to  fail,  I  —  be  dis- 
couraged.   16.  We  returned  it  lest  he  —  think  it  had  been  stolen. 

17.  If  you  —  speak  to  him,  he  —  give  you  a  courteous  answer. 

18.  If  it  should  rain,  —  you  feel  like  going?     19.  I  —  think  he 

—  try  again.  20.  If  you  —  call  me  by  my  real  name,  you  — 
oblige  me. 

12 

Insert  can  or  may  where  they  are  needed  in  the  following 
sentences: 

1.  Father  says  I  —  take  the  boat.  2.  He  says  I  —  sail 
It  better  than  he.  3.  —  a  dog  climb  a  tree?  4.  —  we  have 
some  too?    5.  —  I  go  with  the  rest?    6.  —  he  have  it?    7.  You 

—  say  that  I  did  it;  I  give  you  permission  to  say  so.  8.  —  it 
be  true  that  the  book  was  returned?  9.  —  I  ask  a  favor? 
10.  —  we  have  the  pleasure  of  your  company? 

13 

Explain  the  change  in  meaning  according  as  can  or  may  is 
used  in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  —  I  assist  you?  2.  —  I  ride  the  bicycle?  3.  —  you  go 
with  us?  4.  —  he  talk  French?  5.  —  they  not  see  more  than 
we?  6.  He  says  you  —  do  it.  7.  You  —  go  now.  8.  —  I  de- 
pend on  you?  9.  I  —  say  that  he  is  honest.  10.  —  you  say 
that  he  will  do  it? 

14 

Complete  the  following  sentences  by  inserting  was  and  were 
where  needed,  in  each  case  giving  a  reason  for  your  choice. 
Remember  that  the  indicative  was  is  used  vnth  if  to  denote  simple 
condition  in  past  time;  the  subjunctive  were  to  denote  a  mere 
supposition,  or  to  present  a  state  of  affairs  contrary  to  faxA. 

1.  If  he  —  coming,  he  would  be  here  by  now.  2.  If  I  —  you, 
I  should  start  at  once.  3.  If  he  —  tardy,  he  should  bring  an 
excuse.  4.  Would  that  it  —  true.  5.  I  wish  I  —  with  you. 
6.  He  would  seem  stern  —  it  not  for  a  twinkle  in  his  eye.    7.  Tf 


VERBS  403 

it  —  he,  I  failed  to  recognize  him.  8.  If  it  —  he,  we  should 
recognize  him.  9.  Why,  men,  if  the  river  —  dry,  I  am  able  to 
fill  it  with  my  tears;  if  the  wind  —  down,  I  could  drive  the 
boat  with  my  sighs. 

15 

Point  out  the  errors  in  agreement  between  verb  and  subject. 
Try  in  each  case  to  give  an  explanation  of  hoWy  possibly,  the 
error  came  to  be  made.  For  example^  did  the  writer  assume 
that  there,  coming  before  the  verb,  teas  a  subject  substantive  in 
the  singular  number?  Did  he  fail  to  see  that  the  subject  was  a 
collective  noun?  Did  he  mistake  for  subject  some  noun  stand- 
ing nearer  the  verb  than  the  real  subject?  Did  he  fail  to  think 
how  a  contracted  form  would  look  if  it  were  given  in  full? 

1.  Near  the  door  was  two  chairs.  2.  Six  dollars  and  twenty- 
five  cents  were  contributed.  3.  Don't  it  look  dark!  4.  There's 
no  two  ways  about  it.  5.  If  each  of  the  boys  are  closely 
watched,  the  secret  of  the  trick  will  soon  be  discovered.  6.  This 
house  don't  look  quite  so  old  as  the  other.  7.  Two  of  us  re- 
mained at  home;  so  there  was  but  two  to  go  in  the  boat.  8.  It 
will  clear  before  eight;  you  see  if  it  don't.  9.  Home  with  all 
its  comforts  were  soon  forgotten.  10.  Quickness  as  well  as 
strength  are  needed.  11.  To  the  captain  and  the  manager  of 
the  team  are  due  most  of  the  credit.  12.  Napoleon  with  his 
staff  were  standing  near.  13.  Two-thirds  of  the  roof  are  already 
shingled.  14.  There  was  so  many  attending  the  game  that  we 
could  not  get  a  seat.  15.  Under  these  was  two  basket  balls  and 
a  pair  of  boxing-gloves.  16.  He  don't  know  any  better  than  to 
say  "they  ain't."  17.  Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn  were  written  by 
Longfellow.  18.  The  dailies  tell  where  and  when  there  is  to  be 
bargain  sales.  19.  The  mother,  with  her  three  daughters,  were 
saved.  20.  Every  one  of  the  articles  were  sold.  21.  More  than 
one  has  made  the  same  mistake.  22.  It  happened  while  you  was 
away.  23.  A  hundred  feet  of  hose  were  rapidly  run  out.  24.  We 
was  having  the  time  of  our  lives.  25.  Each  of  the  sticks  were  given 
a  coat  of  walnut  stain.  26.  Mathematics  were  my  favorite  study, 
27.  Was  you  surprised  to  see  mother.'*  28.  There's  two  or  three 
of  us  have  seen  strange  sights. 


404  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

16 

Which  of  the  verbs  in  the  following  sentences  have  objects  and 
are  therefore  transitive?  Which  might  be  used  transitively? 
Which  are  in  the  passive  voice?  Can  a  verb  in  the  passive 
voice  have  an  object? 

1.  That  night  a  cold  blow  came  on  soon  after  sundown. 
2.  The  equator  was  crossed  on  October  first.  3.  The  steerage 
in  which  I  lived  was  filled  with  coils  of  rope,  spare  sails,  and 
old  junk  which  had  not  been  stowed  away.  4.  We  sprang  out 
of  our  bunks  and  hurried  on  deck.  5.  The  ax  cut  deep  and 
the  tree  fell  to  the  earth.  6.  It  seemed  to  Joe  that  he  was  bound 
upon  the  rim  of  a  whirlpool  of  flame.  7.  It  was  their  custom  to 
cruise  in  the  swiftest  boats  they  could  find;  and  it  must  be 
remembered  that  their  vessels,  being  small,  could  be  propelled 
by  sweeps  when  the  wind  failed  them.  8.  It  was  broad  day- 
light, and  the  child  still  slept.  9.  A  wan  ray  of  the  December 
sun  penetrated  the  window  of  the  attic  and  lay  upon  the  ceiling 
in  long  threads  of  light  and  shade.  10.  All  at  once  a  heavily 
laden  carrier's  cart,  which  was  passing  along  the  boulevard, 
shook  the  frail  bed,  like  a  clap  of  thunder,  and  made  it  quiver 
from  top  to  bottom. 

What  substantive  does  each  verb-form  ending  in  -ing  in  the 
following  sentences  modify?  Improve  the  sentences  by  chang- 
ing the  position  of  a  participle,  by  substituting  a  clause  for  a 
participial  phrase,  or  by  making  some  other  change. 

1.  Having  given  our  tickets  to  the  usher,  he  conducted  us 
to  our  seats.  2.  After  promising  never  to  do  it  again,  the 
policeman  let  little  Tommy  go.  3.  Winding  in  and  out  between 
beautiful  banks,  many  an  exclamation  fell  from  our  lips.  4. 
Having  had  your  bath  and  having  been  tucked  between  clean 
sheets,  mother  puts  the  room  to  rights.  5.  He  saw  the  form  of 
the  crouching  bloodhound,  his  eyes  glaring  in  the  moonlight, 
his  jaws  open  and  poising  for  a  spring.  6.  After  knocking  at  the 
door  for  several  minutes.  Lord  V —  let  Kitty  enter.     7.  After 


VERBS  405 

long  considering  what  would  become  of  me,  the  lid  of  the  box 
suddenly  opened.  8.  I  sailed  on  a  first-class  steamer,  being 
equipped  with  the  latest  improvements.  9.  Passing  down  the 
corridor,  a  doorway  appears.  10.  Going  around  to  the  back  of 
the  house,  an  old-fashioned  well-sweep  is  seen.  11.  Greedily 
cropping  the  grass  by  the  side  of  the  road,  we  could  see  a  large 
red  cow. 

18 

Explain  to  the  class  the  following  terms:  (1)  active  voice , 
passive  voice,  progressive  forms,  emphatic  forms;  (2)  conju- 
gation, principal  parts,  regular  and  irregular,  transitive  and 
intransitive. 

19 

Give  a  brief  talk  to  the  class  on  each  of  the  follovnng:  (1) 
Shall  and  will,  (2)  Should  and  would,  (3)  May  and  can, 
(4)  Indicative  was  and  subjunctive  were. 

20 

Spell  from  dictation  the  following: 

auxiliary  principal  intransitive         progressive 

inflection  infinitive  participle  irregular 


VIII 
PREPOSITIONS  AND  CONJUNCTIONS 

The  preposition  performs  a  double  duty.  It  connects, 
and  at  the  same  time  points  out  relationship.  That  is  to 
say,  it  joins  a  substantive,  which  usually  follows  it,  with 
some  other  word  in  the  sentence,  and  indicates  what  the 
one  has  to  do  with  the  other.  In  the  sentence  They  live 
in  trees,  the  preposition  in  joins  the  noun  trees  with  the  verb 
live.  We  know  what  They  live  means,  and  we  know  what 
trees  are,  but  what  the  one  has  to  do  with  the  other  is  ex- 
plained by  the  preposition.  Take  away  the  prepositions 
from  any  paragraph  and  part  of  the  meaning  is  lost;  the 
nouns,  verbs,  and  other  parts  of  speech  remaining  may 
make  but  a  jumble. 

The  substantive  introduced  by  a  preposition  may  be  modi- 
fied in  many  ways;  so  it  happens  that  the  group  of  words 
brought  into  the  sentence  by  a  preposition  may  be  very 
large  —  larger  even  than  all  the  rest  of  the  sentence.  Large 
or  small,  if  introduced  by  a  preposition,  it  is  called  a  prep- 
ositional phrase.  If  such  a  phrase  modifies  a  substantive, 
it  is  called  an  adjective  phrase;  if  it  modifies  a  verb,  it  is 
called  an  adverbial  phrase.  Rarely  is  a  phrase  used  sub- 
stantively, like  a  noun  or  a  pronoun;  yet  we  know  that  the 
preposition  to  is  used  with  the  verb  in  forming  the  infinitive, 
and  that  the  infinitive  is  used  substantively,  as  in  the  sen- 
tence To  remain  seemed  best.  But  when  it  is  so  employed, 
we  disregard  the  fact  that  to  is  a  preposition  and  simply 
use  the  term  infinitive. 

406 


PREPOSITIONS  AND  CONJUNCTIONS  407 

Prepositions  form  but  a  small  group,  a  hundred  or  so, 
not  more  than  half  of  which  are  in  common  use.  All  are 
of  the  same  kind;  all  perform  the  same  duty.  They  are 
easily  recognized,  with  possibly  the  following  exception. 
Sometimes  the  burden  of  pointing  out  relationship  is  more 
than  one  small  preposition  can  attend  to;  hence  a  pair 
work  together,  occasionally  calling  to  their  aid  some  other 
part  of  speech.     Notice  the  following  sentences: 

He  succeeded  hy  means  of  hard  work. 

He  failed  because  of  his  neglect. 

Henry  went  in  place  of  Mary. 

They  were  to  write  to  us  in  regard  to  this  matter. 

On  account  of  heavy  rains  we  were  delayed  a  week. 

The  italicized  words  in  these  sentences  have  been  employed 
so  many  times,  each  group  to  express  a  single  idea,  that  we 
think  of  each  group  as  a  single  word.  We  do  not  stop  to 
pick  it  to  pieces,  just  as  we  do  not  stop  to  pick  to  pieces  a 
verb  phrase.  There  are  many  such  prepositional  groups. 
(See  Exercise  1.) 

Five  errors  may  arise  in  connection  with  prepositions  or 
prepositional  phrases. 

1.  The  rule  is  disregarded  which  states  that  the  object  of  a 
preposition  is  in  the  objective  case.     (See  Exercise  9.) 

This  error  is  made  not  through  ignorance  of  the  rule,  for 
no  one  thinks  of  saying  Give  this  to  he,  but  through  failure 
to  see  that  some  pronoun  is  governed  by  the  preposition. 
Notice  the  following : 

Wrong  Right 

Who  shall  I  give  this  to^  Whom  shall  I  give  this  to? 

He  gave  candy  to  Mary  and  /.     He  gave  candy  to  Mary  and  me. 

In  the  first  sentence,  the  preposition  and  the  pronoun  it 
governs  are  separated  by  four  intervening  words,  in  the 


408  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

second  by  two  words  —  enough  to  make  the  error  possible 
through  carelessness. 

2.  The  wrong  preposition  is  used. 

In,  into  There  is  a  difference  in  meaning  between  He 
fell  in  the  water  and  He  fell  into  the  water.  We  must  be  out 
of  the  water  first  before  we  can  fall  into  it;  we  may  fall  in 
the  water  after  wading  in.  Strictly  speaking,  Come  in  the 
house  means  Put  the  house  around  you  and  come.  Come  into 
the  house,  please,  is  what  the  mother  should  say  to  her  son 
as  she  calls  from  the  window.  And  yet  she  may  say  Come 
in,  noio. 

Between,  among  Between  is  used  only  where  two  are 
concerned.  We  divide  fruit  between  Charles  and  Tom;  we 
distribute  fruit  among  Charles,  Tom,  Mary,  and  the  rest. 
Remember,  too,  that  it  is  incorrect  to  say  of  a  fence  that 
there  are  pickets  between  each  post.  We  should  say  There 
are  pickets  between  the  posts. 

Beside,  besides  At  church  Mary  sits  beside  her  mother. 
There  may  be  others  besides  these  two  in  the  family  pew. 
Beside  means  next  to;  either  beside  or  besides  means  in  ad- 
dition to. 

Off*  ofy  from  The  careful  writer  will  not  say  /  got  this 
off  Tom,  but  /  got  this  of  Tom,  or  /  got  this  from  Tom. 

From,  than  After  different,  from  should  be  used.  One 
tree  is  different  from  another,  not  different  than  another. 

3.  Prepositions  are  used  needlessly.     (See  Exercise  3.) 
Here  are  examples  illustrating  this  fault: 

Wasteful  Economical 

Where  are  you  living  at?  Where  are  you  living? 

Where  are  you  going  <o?  Where  are  you  going? 

I  don't  remember  of  seeing  it.  I  don't  remember  seeing  it. 

4.  Prepositional  phrases  are  sometimes  carelessly  placed. 
In  a  pupirs  composition  occurs  this  sentence:    Lincoln 


PREPOSITIONS  AND  CONJUNCTIONS  409 

wrote  his  speech  while  riding  to  Gettysburg  on  a  scrap  of  brown 
paper.  In  another  composition  we  are  told  that  Mr.  Roose- 
velt was  shot  in  the  middle  of  his  campaign.  The  sentences 
might  better  read,  Lincoln  wrote  his  speech  on  a  scrap  of 
brown  paper,  while  riding  to  Gettysburg^  and  In  the  middle  of 
his  campaign,  Mr.  Roosevelt  was  shot.     (See  Exercise  2.) 

5.   Across,  until,  and  till  are  commonly  misspelled. 

Take  a  long  look  at  these  simple  words.  Notice  that  in 
the  first  there  is  but  one  c  and  no  t.  Spell  this  word  fifty- 
times.  Write  it  fiifty  times.  Make  up  your  mind  never  to 
misspell  it  again.  Then  notice  the  difference  between  till 
and  until.  The  two  words  mean  the  same,  but  till  and  the 
last  syllable  of  until  are  not  spelled  alike.  Perhaps  some- 
time they  will  be,  but  meanwhile  follow  the  dictionary. 


Prepositions 


Kinds:  One  kind  only 
Forms:  No  inflections 
Use:   To  introduce  phrases,  showing  the  relation 

of  a  substantive  to  some  other  word  in 

the  sentence 


Conjunctions  connect  single  words,  phrases,  clauses,  and 
even  complete  sentences.  Unlike  prepositions,  they  do  not 
take  objects.  There  are  two  kinds,  coordinate  and  sub- 
ordinate. The  coordinates  connect  words  or  word-groups 
which  have  the  same  grammatical  relations;  the  subor- 
dinates introduce  subordinate  —  that  is  to  say  dependent 
—  clauses.  The  principal  coordinates  are  and,  but,  for,  or, 
nor.  The  principal  subordinates  are  if,  unless,  except,  that, 
because,  since,  although,  as,  and  than,  A  number  of  words, 
prominent  among  which  are  when,  while,  and  where,  are 
also  classed  as  subordinates,  and  are  sometimes  called 
adverbial  conjunctions,  because,  in  addition  to  joining,  they 
convey,  like  adverbs,  the  idea  of  time  and  place.  Be- 
sides these  there  are  a  number  of  phrasal  conjunctions, 
including  as  soon  as,  as  long  as,  in  order  that,  as  though,  as  if. 


410  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

word-groups  which  we  do  not  stop  to  analyze.  The3%  too, 
are  subordinate  conjunctions. 

A  few  conjunctions  are  commonly  used  in  pairs,  and  when 
so  used  they  are  called  correlatives.  The  principal  ones  are 
both  —  and,  either  —  or,  neither  —  nor,  whether  —  or.  Notice 
that  neither  and  or  are  not  correlative. 

Conjunctions  are  comparatively  few  in  number,  and  they 
are  easily  distinguished  from  the  other  parts  of  speech. 
Sometimes  diflSculty  is  experienced  in  determining  whether 
a  conjunction  is  coordinate  or  subordinate.  By  way  of 
getting  clearly  in  mind  how  the  two  kinds  differ  in  the  work 
that  they  do,  study  the  following  sentences: 

Jack  and  Jill  went  up  the  hill. 

You  take  this  one  and  I  will  take  that  one. 

You  can  go  by  train  or  by  boat. 

When  it  grows  cold  and  food  gets  scarce,  the  birds  migrate. 

The  two  words  joined  by  and  in  the  first  sentence  have  the 
same  grammatical  relation;  each  is  related  in  the  same  way 
to  the  verb  went.  In  the  second  sentence  the  conjunction 
joins  the  two  members  of  a  compound  sentence.  Because 
members  of  a  compound  sentence,  one  clause  is  as  important 
as  the  other;  grammatically  they  are  equal.  The  con- 
junction or  in  the  third  sentence  connects  two  phrases  that 
are  in  parallel  construction.  One  is  as  important  as  the 
other;  both  modify  the  same  verb.  In  the  last  sentence 
the  conjunction  and  joins  two  dependent  clauses,  both  of 
which  modify  the  verb  migrate.  All  the  conjunctions  to 
which  attention  has  been  called  are  coordinate.  In  each 
case  the  words,  phrases,  or  clauses  joined  are  in  the  same 
grammatical  relation. 
Now  note  the  following: 

I  will  go  if  you  will. 

Although  I  am  busy,  it  is  my  duty  to  go. 


PREPOSITIONS  AND  CONJUNCTIONS  411 

Let  us  go  when  the  others  do. 

Let  us  not  hesitate  lest  the  others  follow  our  example. 

In  each  of  these  sentences  the  conjunction  introduces  a  de- 
pendent clause.  That  the  clause  in  each  case  is  dependent, 
you  will  see  at  once  if  you  separate  it  from  the  rest  of  the 
sentence.  I  will  go  means  something;  if  you  will  does  not 
explain  itself  till  the  clause  is  restored  to  its  place  in  the 
sentence.  Because  the  conjunctions  in  these  sentences 
connect  elements  which  are  not  grammatically  equal,  be- 
cause they  introduce  dependent  or  subordinate  clauses,  we 
know  that  they  are  subordinate  conjunctions.  (See  Ex- 
ercise 4.) 

Conjunctions  seldom  give  any  trouble;  they  are  a  com- 
paratively simple  part  of  speech.  A  few  errors,  however, 
do  occur,  mainly  through  carelessness. 

1.  We  writey  carelessly y  and  etc. 

Etc.  is  a  contraction  of  two  Latin  words,  et  cetera^  meaning 
and  so  forth.  Hence  and  et  cetera  means  and  and  so  forth. 
The  and  is  therefore  superfluous.  If  you  do  use  the  con- 
traction, be  sure  to  write  it  etc.,  not  ect. 

2.  Forgetting  that  a  conjunction  takes  no  object,  we  place  the 
objective  case  after  than  and  as.     (See  Exercise  9.) 

For  example,  we  write  /  am  taller  than  hirUy  whereas  we 
should  write  /  am  taller  than  he.  The  sentence,  like  so  many 
that  we  employ  every  day,  is  elliptical.  That  is,  part  of 
it  is  omitted.  The  complete  sentence  is  /  am  taller  than  he 
is.  He  is  the  subject  of  the  verb  is.  Similarly  we  write  I 
am  as  tall  as  him,  when  we  should  write  /  am  as  tall  as  he, 

3.  The  preposition  like  is  sometimes  wrongly  used  for  as 
and  as  if. 

Instead  of  Hold  your  club  like  I  doy  say  Hold  your  club  as 
I  do.  Instead  of  He  acts  like  he  icas  tiredy  say  He  acts  as  if 
he  were  tiredy  or  He  acts  tired. 

4.  Or  is  wrongly  used  as  the  correlative  of  neither. 


412 


JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 


It  is  incorrect  to  say  /  have  neither  gold  or  silver.  The 
correct  form  is  /  have  neither  gold  nor  silver. 

5.  The  correlatives  are  sometimes  carelessly  placed. 
Notice  the  following  sentence:    I  neither  call  myself  rich 

nor  poor.  This  is  faulty  in  that  the  first  of  the  two  cor- 
relatives is  too  far  removed  from  the  word  with  which  it 
goes.  Here  is  a  better  arrangement:  I  call  myself  neither 
rich  nor  poor. 

6.  A  coordinate  conjunction  is  incorrectly  used  to  join 
elements  that  are  not  of  the  same  rank.     (See  Exercise  4.) 

Here  is  an  example :  It  is  a  fine  story  and  having  a  strong 
plot.  It  is  a  fine  story  is  a  clause;  having  a  strong  plot  is  a 
participial  phrase,  the  equivalent  of  an  adjective.  An  ad- 
jective modifier  is  not  of  the  same  order  as  a  principal  clause. 
The  sentence  is  improved  when  changed  to  read  //  is  a  fine 
story  and  has  a  strong  plot. 

7.  The  conjunction  and  is  overworked.  (See  Exercises  6 
and  7.) 

In  daily  conversation  many  persons  use  and  ten  times 
where  once  would  be  better.  How  easy  it  is  to  fall  into  the 
habit  of  beginning  practically  every  sentence  w4th  a  mean- 
ingless and! 

Coordinate 
Kinds  ]  Subordinate 

Correlative 


Conjunctions 


Forms  No  inflections 

Use  To  connect  words,  phrases,  clauses 


EXERCISES 

1 

Pick  out  the  prepositional  phrases  and  tell  what  each  one 
modifies.  Which  of  the  phrases  are  adjective  and  which  are 
adverbial? 


PREPOSITIONS  AND  CONJUNCTIONS  413 

1.  I  found  myself  in  a  lofty  antique  hall,  the  roof  supported 
by  massive  joists  of  old  English  oak.  2.  It  was  soberly  lighted 
by  a  row  of  Gothic  windows  at  a  considerable  height  from  the 
floor  and  apparently  opening  upon  the  roofs  of  the  cloisters. 
3.  An  ancient  picture  of  some  reverend  dignitary  of  the  church 
in  his  robes  hung  over  the  fireplace.  4.  Around  the  hall  and  in 
a  small  gallery  were  the  books,  arranged  in  carved  oaken  cases. 
5.  They  consisted  mainly  of  old  polemic  writers,  and  were  much 
more  worn  by  time  than  use.  6.  In  the  center  of  the  library 
was  a  solitary  table  with  tw6  or  three  books  on  it,  an  inkstand 
without  ink,  and  a  few  pens  parched  by  long  disuse.  7.  The 
place  seemed  fitted  for  quiet  study  and  profound  meditation. 
8.  It  was  buried  deep  among  the  massive  walls  of  the  abbey, 
and  shut  up  from  the  tumult  of  the  world.  9.  I  could  only 
hear  now  and  then  the  shouts  of  the  schoolboys  faintly  swelling 
from  the  cloisters,  and  the  sound  of  a  bell  tolling  for  prayers, 
echoing  soberly  along  the  roofs  of  the  abbey.  10.  By  degrees 
the  shouts  of  merriment  grew  fainter  and  fainter,  and  at  length 
died  away;  the  bell  ceased  to  toll,  and  a  profound  silence 
reigned  through  the  dusky  hall.  —  Irving 


Improve  the  following  sentences  by  shifting  the  prepositional 
phrases. 

1.  He  went  strolling  down  the  lane  with  a  smile.  2.  He  was 
kept  after  school  for  throwing  snowballs  almost  an  hour. 
3.  Take  one  of  the  powders  on  retiring  in  a  little  water.  4.  The 
corn  was  roasted  by  the  boys  on  the  ends  of  long,  pointed  sticks. 
5.  He  conducted  me  to  a  little  chapel  where  all  of  his  ancestors 
had  been  married  for  centuries.  6.  An  unknown  man  was 
found  lying  by  the  railroad  track  with  a  fractured  skull.  7.  Col- 
leges are  springing  up  all  over  the  country  for  women  only. 
8.  This  was  taken  from  the  dress  which  Marie  Antoinette 
wore  at  her  execution  by  an  eye-witness.  9.  These  lines  were 
written  nearly  fifty  years  ago  by  one  who  has  for  several  years 
lain  in  his  grave  for  his  own  amusement.  10.  Lewis  Taylor's 
back  was  strained  by  lifting  the  forepart  of  last  week.     11.  Mr. 


414  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

Crane  lost  a  valuable  cow  last  week;  she  fell  into  a  hole  on  her 
back.  12.  We  thought  the  boat  would  turn  over  several  times 
before  we  reached  the  shore.  13.  Rover  finally  lost  the  use  of 
his  legs;  so  we  had  to  shoot  him  out  of  humanity.  14.  It  still 
poured,  and  uncle  Harry  started  out  to  feed  the  cows  with  an 
umbrella.  15.  The  hound  was  making  a  desperate  attempt  to 
get  his  forepaws  over  the  side  of  the  boat,  at  the  same  time  seiz- 
ing the  rope  that  held  the  boat  in  his  teeth. 

3 

Improve  the  following  by  removing  unnecessary  prepositions, 

1.  Here!  where  are  you  going  to?  2.  Where  are  you  working 
at,  Tom.''  3.  What  I  wish  to  know  is  where  we  are  at.  4.  At 
about  ten  o'clock  it  began  to  sprinkle.  5.  Of  course  there  are 
many  other  ways  of  which  I  know  nothing  about.  6.  Opposite 
to  the  door  hung  a  huge  mirror.  7.  Do  you  know  where  father 
went  to?  8.  He  grieves  over  it  more  than  you  think  for.  9.  I 
went  for  to  untangle  my  line,  when  a  big  wave  struck  the  boat 
and  over  the  side  I  went.     10.  Sally  fell  off  of  the  load  of  hay. 


Pick  out  the  conjunctions  and  give  each  a  name,  using  the 
terms  coordinate,  subordinate,  and  correlative.  Tell  what 
each  conjunction  joins. 

1.  All  hands  were  sent  aloft,  and  for  an  hour  or  two  we  were 
hard  at  work.  2.  Let  go  when  I  give  the  signal.  3.  If  all  is 
ready,  let  us  advance  while  yet  there  is  daylight.  4.  Again 
and  again  did  we  pound  on  the  gate,  but  no  one  came;  so  at 
last  we  were  forced  to  climb  over  the  wall.  5.  Though  he  fall, 
he  shall  not  be  utterly  cast  down.  C.  You  must  stay  a  little 
longer,  for  it  is  still  raining.  7.  Neither  this  nor  the  other  is 
satisfactory,  but  I  will  take  a  little  of  each  unless  you  can  show 
me  something  else.  8.  We  wrote  out  the  plan  in  full,  in  order 
that  there  should  be  no  misunderstanding.  9.  He  resolved  to 
go  back  and  look  for  them;  but,  not  well  knowing  the  way, 
he  told  the  Indians  who  were  about  the  camp  that  he  would 


PREPOSITIONS  AND  CONJUNCTIONS  415 

give  them  a  hatchet  if  they  would  help  him.  10.  Here  was 
the  peat-rick  that  hid  my  dinner,  when  I  could  not  get  home 
for  it,  and  there  was  the  bush  with  the  thyme  growing  round 
it,  where  Annie  had  found  a  great  swarm  of  bees.  11.  So  say- 
ing, the  stranger  backed  along  with  me  into  the  parlor,  and  put 
me  behind  him  in  the  corner,  so  that  we  were  both  hidden  by 
the  open  door.  12.  I  told  him  not  to  do  it,  because  I  had  heard 
otherwise,  but  was  not  at  liberty  to  tell  one-tenth  of  what  I 
knew,  and,  indeed,  had  seen  in  London  town.  13.  But  of  this 
he  took  no  heed,  because  I  only  nodded  at  him;  and  he  could 
not  make  it  out.  14.  For  it  takes  an  old  man,  or  at  least  a 
middle-aged  one,  to  nod  and  wink  with  any  power  on  the  brain 
of  other  men.  15.  I  kept  well  in  sight  of  her,  for  she  moved 
recklessly,  leaving  a  trail  of  flattened  grass  a  foot  and  a  half 
wide.  16.  I  wanted  to  stand  up  —  and  I  don't  believe  I  could 
have  turned  her  back  with  a  rail  —  but  I  was  afraid  if  she  saw 
me  that  she  might  return  indefinitely  to  the  pond;  so  on  I 
went,  flat  on  the  ground,  squeezing  through  the  lower  rails  of 
the  fence,  as  if  the  field  beyond  were  a  melon-patch. 

6 

Keeping  in  mind  that  the  coordinate  conjunction  should  he 
used  to  connect  coordinate  elements  only,  improve  the  following 
sentences. 

In  the  first  sentence,  for  example,  we  find  the  conjunction 
and  between  the  clause  the  roads  were  poor  and  the  phrase 
on  account  of  the  steep  grades.  But  a  phrase  and  a  clause 
are  not  of  equal  rank.  The  sentence  is  improved,  there- 
fore, if  it  is  made  to  read  We  could  not  go  very  fast,  for  the 
roads  were  poor  and  the  grades  were  steep.  In  the  second,  the 
conjunction  connects  the  phrase  of  good  character  and  the 
clause  who  was  popular  among  his  mates.  This  might  be 
changed  to  read  He  was  a  good  boy  and  popular  among 
his  mates.  When  the  sentence  is  thus  changed,  the  con- 
junction joins  two  clauses:  He  was  a  good  boy  and  (he  was) 
popidar  among  his  mates.  Not  a  little  ingenuity  will  be  re- 
quired to  correct  some  of  the  sentences. 


416  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

1.  We  could  not  go  very  fast,  for  the  roads  were  poor  and  on 
account  of  the  steep  grades.  2.  He  was  a  boy  of  good  character 
and  who  was  popular  among  his  mates.  3.  To  the  right  of  the 
door  is  a  thrifty  vine  which  clambers  high,  and  covering  one 
of  the  windows  completely.  4.  The  toy  schooner  is  trimmed 
with  tinsel  ropes  and  little  electric  lights,  and  having  bottles 
of  perfumery  as  cargo.  5.  The  lady,  having  lost  her  way,  and 
as  night  was  coming  on,  felt  that  her  plight  was  serious.  6.  At 
first  I  was  overawed  by  the  immensity  of  the  building  and  be- 
cause there  were  so  many  people  hurrying  about.  7.  He  prom- 
ised to  go  at  once  and  that  he  would  return  as  soon  as  possible. 

8.  As  the  service  was  held  in  the  afternoon  and  the  church  being 
a  mile  away,  it  was  necessary  to  start  immediately  after  dinner. 

9.  He  is  six  feet  in  height  and  weighing  two  hundred  pounds. 

10.  Not  having  heard  from  the  agent  and  as  there  was  no  time 
to  lose,  we  made  our  purchases  elsewhere.  11.  The  boys  de- 
cide that  they  can  go  no  further  that  night  and  to  make  a  rude 
shelter  to  keep  off  the  rain.  12.  His  hat  was  lifted  from  his 
head  and  carried  by  the  wind  across  the  street,  over  people's 
heads,  and  finally  resting  in  a  puddle  of  water.  13.  One  of 
the  chief  attractions,  and  which  appealed  most  of  all  to  us 
girls,  was  a  delicious  lunch. 

6 

Rewrite  the  following  sentences,  avoiding  the  conjunction 
and. 

1.  I  looked  down  and  I  saw  footprints.  2.  The  odor  is  faint 
and  it  recalls  that  of  sweet  violets.  3.  We  pushed  on  and  soon 
came  to  a  stumpy  field  and  this  field  was  at  the  head  of  a  deep 
valley.  4.  We  started  south  and  we  made  Goodwin  park  our 
objective  point.  5.  In  the  gymnasium  contests  we  played  an 
important  part  and  covered  ourselves  with  glory.  6.  Ellen 
suspected  Red  Murdock  and  sent  Allan  to  learn  from  him  his 
purpose  in  bringing  Fitz  James  to  the  cave.  7.  He  sprang  to 
his  feet  and  demanded  her  name.  8.  Of  a  warm  thawy  day  in 
February  the  snow  is  suddenly  covered  with  myriads  of  snow- 
fleas,  and  these  look  like  black,  new  powder  just  spilt  there. 


PREPOSITIONS  AND  CONJUNCTIONS  417 

9.  Swift  was  born  in  Dublin  in  1667,  and  was  one  of  the  greatest 
writers  of  his  day.  10.  Wright  Lorimer  played  the  part  of 
David,  and  he  is  the  author  of  the  play.  11.  At  length  the 
trail  became  clearer  and  brought  them  to  the  edge  of  the 
woods  and  to  a  public  road.  12.  The  tennis  court  was  very 
soft,  and  so  we  gave  it  a  top  dressing  of  clay  and  wet  it  thor- 
oughly and  then  rolled  it,  and  this  treatment  made  it  quite 
smooth  and  hard. 


The  conjunction  as  is  so  commonly  misused  that  the  young 
writer  will  do  well  to  avoid  it.  This  should  prove  easy,  for 
the  word  has  many  synonyms.  Instead  of  We  did  this,  as 
it  seemed  prudent,  it  would  be  better  to  write  We  did  this  be- 
cause it  seemed  prudent.  In  the  sentence  We  followed  the 
path,  as  it  would  take  too  long  to  go  by  way  of  the  road,  either 
for  or  since  might  be  substituted  for  as.  In  the  sentence  We 
went  to  the  spring  so  as  to  get  a  pail  of  water,  the  words  so  as 
are  entirely  unnecessary,  for  the  infinitive  by  itself  expresses 
purpose. 

Remodel  the  following  sentences,  avoiding  the  use  of  as  and 
so  as. 

1.  We  blazed  a  tree  here  and  there  so  as  we  could  find  our 
way  back.  2.  At  last  he  gave  up,  as  he  saw  that  defeat  was 
inevitable.  3.  Our  first  thought  was  to  cover  the  book  so  as 
to  prevent  its  getting  soiled.  4.  I  am  glad  you  told  me  this, 
as  it  confirms  my  suspicion.  5.  We  climbed  higher  yet  so  as  to 
get  a  better  view.  6.  As  we  have  agreed  to  go,  let  us  keep  our 
word.  7.  There  must  be  some  one  within,  as  I  hear  voices. 
8.  We  did  this  hurriedly,  as  we  were  told  to  do  it.  9.  I  can't 
see  as  there's  any  use  in  my  trying,  as  the  others  are  better 
athletes. 

8 

Correct  the  following  sentences: 

1.  He  is  far  cleverer  than  me.  2.  When  you  are  as  old  as 
me,  you  can  go  to  the  circus  alone;   but  for  the  present  it  will 


418  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

be  better  for  you  to  go  with  father  and  I.  3.  With  you  and  he 
to  manage  things,  all  should  go  well.  4.  Big  girls  like  they 
don't  care  for  such  things  as  dolls.  5.  No  one  is  quite  so  nice 
as  him.  6.  Aren't  you  as  brave  as  him?  7.  With  John  steer- 
ing and  I  bailing  furiously,  we  sped  on  in  our  mad  career. 
8.  To  Ellen  and  I  was  left  the  responsibility  of  arranging  every- 
thing. 9.  Everybody  except  Mary  and  I  brought  lunch. 
10.  Who  shall  we  give  this  to.'*  11.  You  can  do  such  things 
just  as  well  as  them. 


9 

Study  carefully  the  following  sentences,  paying  particular 
attention  to  italicized  words.  Rewrite  the  sentences,  trying  to 
improve  them. 

1.  Strike  out  boldly  like  I  do.  2.  No  sooner  had  he  looked 
at  the  picture  when  he  began  to  smile.  3.  This  is  a  little  dif- 
ferent than  the  other.  4.  We  decided  to  go  after  all,  as  long 
as  we  were  all  ready.  5.  Directly  we  got  there,  we  were  given 
a  warm  meal.  6.  It  seems  but  yesterday  since  we  entered  high 
school.  7.  The  reason  for  the  postponement  was  because  of 
the  bad  weather.  8.  Many  objections  were  raised  against  this 
plan.  9.  The  athlete  feels  defeat  like  a  soldier  does  who  has 
lost  a  battle.  10.  The  snow  was  knee  deep,  but  I  started  for 
school;  but  I  had  to  turn  back,  as  there  was  no  session  that 
day,  on  account  of  the  storm.  11.  I  am  not  yet  decided  if  I 
shall  go  to  college  or  not.  12.  Better  wear  an  overcoat,  so  as 
you  will  not  get  cold.  13.  You  cannot  hope  for  promotion 
without  you  have  a  good  education.  14.  It  will  not  be  long 
until  cold  weather  comes.  15.  He  is  neither  blind  in  the  right 
eye  nor  the  left.  16.  The  house  had  not  been  occupied  as  long 
as  the  girls  could  remember.  17.  Better  keep  your  wood 
stacked  under  a  tree;  and  should  rain  fall,  it  will  remain  fairly 
dry.  18.  The  prisoner  did  not  dare  to  hesitate,  atid  he  an- 
swered promptly,  **The  right  eye."  19.  Reluctantly  the  king 
ordered  his  servant  to  whip  the  lad,  and  to  lay  the  blows  on 
lightly.    20.  Most  of  the  trees  are  birches,  and  there  are  a  few 


PREPOSITIONS  AND  CONJUNCTIONS  419 

pines.    21.  I  felt  like  as  if  I  were  strangling.    22.  You  are  wrong; 
it  was  neither  John  or  Arthur. 

10 

Prepare  a  five-minute  talk  on  each  of  the  following:  (1)  Com- 
mon errors  in  the  use  of  prepositions,  (2)  Common  errors  in 
the  use  of  conjunctions. 

11 

Spell  from  dictation  the  following  words: 

preposition         across  till  phrasal 

connect  until  coordinate  correlative 


IX 

SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

Every  complete  sentence  has  a  subject  and  a  predicate. 
The  necessary  part  of  the  predicate  is  always  a  verb.  The 
necessary  part  of  the  subject  is  always  a  noun,  a  pronoun, 
or  some  word  or  word-group  used  like  a  noun.  Various 
types  of  subjects  are  here  illustrated: 

1.  Mary  hesitated.  7.  That  we  should  win  was 

2.  We  hesitated.  evident. 

S.  The  bravest  hesitated.  8.  There  was   snow  on  the 

4.  Cheering  helps.  ground. 

5.  To  smile  is  best.  9.  Are  you  ready? 

6.  To  win  the  game  was  their  10.  Go! 

desire. 

A  noun  is  the  subject  of  the  first  sentence;  a  pronoun  is 
the  subject  of  the  second.  In  the  third  we  find  an  adjective 
used  as  a  noun,  and  in  the  fourth  a  gerund y  or  verbal  noun. 
An  infinitive  is  the  subject  of  the  fifth,  an  infinitive  phrase  — 
an  infinitive  with  an  object  —  the  subject  of  the  sixth. 
The  subject  of  the  seventh  is  a  noun  clause  introduced  by 
the  subordinate  conjunction  that.  The  subject  of  the  eighth 
is  a  noun^  out  of  its  natural  position,  for  the  adverb  there 
stands  first,  where  we  naturally  look  for  the  subject.  In 
the  ninth,  an  interrogative  sentence,  the  subject  is  a  pronoun 
following  the  verb.  The  subject  of  the  tenth  sentence  is 
a  shadowy  thing,  the  pronoun  you  understood.  Usually  in 
an  imperative  sentence  the  subject  is  not  expressed,  but 
the  mind  supplies  it  readily.     In  all  ten  sentences  the  sub- 

420 


SENTENCE  ANALYSIS  421 

jects  are  alike  in  one  respect:  they  are  names,  representing 
persons,  things,  acts,  ideas.  They  tell  what  the  sentences 
are  about. 

Through  modifiers  the  simple  or  bare  subject  may  be  en- 
larged. In  the  sentences  used  for  illustration  the  bare  sub- 
ject is  printed  in  italics,  the  modifying  words  in  bold  type. 

1.  Nine  hoys  came.  8.  The  thing  to  be  done  was 

2.  Tom*s  father  appeared.  difficult. 

3.  The  team,  defeated,  cheered    9.  The  hoy  approaching  us  is 

the  victors.  Tom. 

4.  Mary,  the  cook,  made  haste.  10.  Having  finished  his  work, 

5.  The  end  of  the  journey  was  he  went  home. 

near.  11.  This  thought,  that  we  had 

6.  The  place  where  we  camped  done  our  best,  consoled 

was  pleasant.  us. 

7.  The     guide     who     accom- 

panied us  was  lame. 

In  the  first  sentence  the  subject  is  modified  by  an  adjective, 
in  the  second  by  a  noun  in  the  possessive  case.  In  the  third 
the  modifiers  are  an  adjective  and  a  participle.  A  participle, 
you  will  remember,  is  but  an  adjective  made  out  of  a  verb. 
A  noun  in  apposition  enlarges  the  subject  of  the  fourth,  and 
a  prepositional  phrase  the  subject  of  the  fifth.  In  the  sixth 
and  seventh  are  clause  modifiers,  the  first  introduced  by  a 
subordinate  conjunction,  the  second  by  a  relative  pronoun. 
An  infinitive  appears  in  the  eighth.  In  the  ninth  and  tenth 
we  find  participles;  in  the  eleventh  a  pronominal  adjective 
and  a  clause  in  apposition  introduced  by  the  subordinate 
conjunction  that.  It  might  puzzle  you  a  bit  to  describe 
some  of  these  modifiers  should  you  meet  them  in  other  sen- 
tences; but  as  they  appear  in  the  illustrations,  it  should  be 
clear  at  a  glance  that  every  one  of  them  forms  part  of  a 
subject,  and  that  every  one  modifies,  enlarges,  the  simple 
subject. 

Modifiers  themselves  may  be  modified,  and,  by  means  of 


422  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

conjunctions,  subject  may  be  linked  to  subject  and  modifier 
to  modifier.  Hence  it  is  possible  to  build  up  subjects  of 
great  length.     Here  are  examples: 

1.  Food  and  shelter  were  furnished. 

2.  Nine  boys  and  three  girls  were  present. 

3.  A  long,  narrow,  and  crooked  lane  led  to  the  pasture. 

4.  The  army,  defeated,  almost  annihilated,  refused  to 
surrender. 

5.  The  rat  that  ate  the  malt  that  lay  in  the  house  that  Jack 
built  did  not  escape. 

6.  The  house  to  which  we  were  taken  and  where  we  remained 
for  many  months  faced  the  harbor. 

7.  Having  finished  his  work  and  changed  his  clothes,  he 
made  a  few  calls. 

(See  Exercise  1.) 

Below  are  illustrated  various  forms  of  predicates,  the  verb 
in  each  case  appearing  in  italics,  the  modifying  words  in 
bold  type: 

1.  We  arose,  5.  We  hurried  to  catch  the  train. 

2.  We  arose  early.  6.  We  were  delayed  weeks. 

3.  We  arose  with  the  lark.  7.  They  advanced,  a  road  hav- 

4.  We  arose  when  the  bell  rang.  ing  been  built. 

In  the  second  sentence  the  verb  is  modified  by  an  adverhy 
in  the  third  by  a  phrase,  in  the  fourth  by  a  clause.  An  in- 
finitive phrase  is  seen  in  the  fifth,  and  in  the  sixth  a  nou7i  used 
adverbially.  A  noun  thus  employed  is  sometimes  called  an 
adverbial  objective.  In  the  seventh  we  have  a  participial 
phrase  used  as  modifier  of  the  verb  advanced. 

Here  are  still  other  ways  in  which  bare  predicates  may  be 
expanded : 

1.  They  gathered  daisies.  5.  To  hesitate  is  to  lose  all. 

2.  V^e  found  what  we  sought.  6.  The  rose  is  red. 

3.  They  brought  us  clothing.  7.  They  elected  him  president. 

4.  This  is  he.  8.  I  saw  him  go. 


SENTENCE  ANALYSIS  423 

The  meaning  of  the  verb  in  the  first  sentence  is  completed 
by  a  noun  used  as  a  direct  object.  In  the  second  sentence 
the  verb  has  as  direct  object  not  a  single  word  but  a  clause. 
The  predicate  of  the  third  sentence  is  still  more  complicated 
in  that  it  has  two  objects:  clothing,  the  direct  object;  us,  the 
indirect  object.  In  the  fourth  sentence  we  have  a  predicate 
nominative.  That  is,  the  pronoun  following  the  verb  is  in 
the  same  case  as  the  subject.  Both  This  and  he  refer  to  the 
same  person.  In  the  fifth  sentence  an  infinitive  phrase  is 
used  in  the  same  way.  It  is  not  the  object  of  the  verb; 
for  the  verb  is  merely  links  words  and  cannot  take  an  object. 
In  the  sixth  sentence  we  have  a  predicate  adjective.  This 
adjective,  though  rightly  called  a  part  of  the  predicate,  for 
it  helps  the  verb  to  affirm  something  about  the  subject, 
nevertheless  modifies,  predicatively,  the  subject.  The 
seventh  sentence  is  quite  difficult  to  explain.  It  is  clear 
that  the  complete  predicate  is  elected  him  president,  that  the 
simple  predicate  is  elected,  and  that  him  is  the  direct  object. 
But  how  shall  we  explain  president?  There  are  several 
ways,  but  it  is  enough  for  our  purpose  to  say  that  certain 
verbs  take  two  objects.  The  verb  in  the  eighth  sentence 
has  as  object  an  infinitive  clause.  Go  is  an  infinitive  with 
the  preposition  to  omitted,  and  him  is  its  subject.  The 
subject  of  an  infinitive  is  in  the  objective  case. 

Through  adding  modifier  to  modifier  and  verb  to  verb  by 
means  of  conjunctions,  predicates  may  be  expanded  almost 
indefinitely.  By  expanding  both  subject  and  predicate,  it 
is  not  difficult  to  make  page-long  sentences.  Sentences  of 
great  length  may  seem  complicated,  but  if  they  are  care- 
fully assembled,  it  is  a  simple  matter  to  see  just  how  part 
is  related  to  part.  Subjects  and  predicates  are  easily  dis- 
coverable, and  seldom  is  it  difficult  to  tell  with  what  word  a 
modifier  goes.     (See  Exercise  2.) 

The  phrase  and  the  clause  play  so  important  a  part  in 
sentence-building  that  they  call  for  careful  attention.     A 


424  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

clause)  it  should  be  remembered,  is  a  group  of  words  con- 
taining subject  and  predicate,  and  forming  part  of  a  sen- 
tence. A  phrase  is  a  group  of  related  words  without 
subject  and  predicate,  forming  part  of  a  sentence.  Both 
phrases  and  clauses  are  used  like  single  words  —  like  nouns, 
adjectives,  and  adverbs.  So  accustomed  are  we  to  such 
word-groups,  many  of  which  we  employ  every  day  in  con- 
versation and  see  whenever  we  read  a  book  or  a  neswpaper, 
that  we  hardly  stop  to  analyze  them.  The  eye  or  the  ear 
accepts  each  group  almost  as  if  it  were  a  single  word. 

Clauses  are  of  three  kinds,  noun  or  substantive,  adjective, 
and  adverbial,  according  to  the  part  they  play  in  building 
the  sentence.  Under  noun  clauses  may  be  classed  the 
so-called  infinitive  clause.  Here  are  a  few  examples  of 
clauses: 

1.  That  we  should  be  tired  was  certain.    (This  is  a  noun  clause 

used  as  subject.) 

2.  I  do  not  know  where  he  has  gone.     (This  is  a  noun  clause 

used  as  object  of  a  verb.) 

3.  We  were  content  with  what  was  left.     (This  is  a  noun  clause 

used  as  object  of  a  preposition.) 

4.  The  clerk  who  served  us  was  polite.     (This  is  an  adjective 

clause,  for  it  modifies  a  noun.     Since  it  is  introduced  by  a 
relative  pronoun,  it  is  called  a  relative  clause.) 

5.  The  site  that  we  selected  was  well  shaded.    (This  too  is  an  ad- 

jective clause,  for  it  modifies  a  noun.) 

6.  We  started  when  the  signal  was  given.    (This  is  an  adverbial 

clause,  for  it  modifies  a  verb.) 

7.  They  will  go  if  it  is  pleasant.     (This  is  an  adverbial  clause, 

for  it  modifies  a  verb.     Since  it  begins  with  ?J,  which  her- 
alds a  condition,  it  is  called  a  conditional  clause.) 

8.  We  started  promptly  that  we  might  be  on  time.     (This  is 

an  adverbial  clause.) 

9.  I  thought  him  to  be  the  ablest  of  all.     (This  is  an  infinitive 

clause.     Him  is  the  subject  of  the  infinitive  to  be.) 


SENTENCE  ANALYSIS  425 

Noun,  adjective,  adverbial,  and  infinitive  clauses  are  all 
classed  as  dependent.     (See  Exercise  3.) 

Phrases  are  of  three  kinds:  prepositional,  participial, 
and  infinitive.  The  prepositional  phrase  is  used  either  like 
an  adjective  or  like  an  adverb,  modifying  such  words  as 
adjectives  and  adverbs  modify. 

1.  The  way  of  the  transgressor  is  hard.     (This  is  an  adjective 

phrase,  for  it  modifies  a  noun.) 

2.  He  pointed  with  his  cane.     (This  is  an  adverbial  phrase,  for 

it  modifies  a  verb.) 

The  participial  phrase  also  is  used  both  adjectively  and 
adverbially.  When  used  adverbially,  it  is  said  to  be  in 
absolute  construction. 

1.  Entering    the   store,   we   purchased   supplies.      (This   parti- 

cipial phrase  is  used  adjectively.) 

2.  The  man  entering  the  store  is  the  proprietor.     (This  par- 

ticipial phrase  is  used  adjectively.) 

3.  This  having  been  done,   we  felt  secure.     (This  participial 

phrase  is  used  adverbially.    It  is  in  absolute  construction.) 

4.  Then  Edna,  all  the  girls  having  gone  to  bed,  put  out  the 

lights.     (This  participial  phrase  is  in  absolute  construc- 
tion.) 

The  infinitive  phrase  is  used  adjectively,  adverbially, 
and  also  substantively. 

1.  A  desire  to  do  well  brought  success.     (This  is  an  infinitive 

phrase  used  adjectively.    It  modifies  a  noun.) 

2.  He  hastened  to  get  some  water.    (This  is  an  infinitive  phrase 

used  adverbially.     It  modifies  a  verb.) 

3.  To  win  the  game  was  his  only  desire.     (This  is  an  infinitive 

phrase  used  substantively.     It  is  the  subject  of  a  verb.) 

4.  He  wanted  to  win  the  game  fairly.     (This  is  an  infinitive 

phrase   used   substantively.     The   phrase  is   object   of   a 
verb.) 

(See  Exercise  4.) 


426  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

At  this  point  it  will  be  well  to  define  once  more  the  terms 
simple,  complex,  and  compound,  as  applied  to  sentences. 

A  sentence  is  called  simple  when  it  contains  but  one  sub- 
ject and  one  predicate.  The  subject  may  be  compound; 
the  predicate  may  be  compound.  The  verb  may  take  an 
object.  There  may  be  modifiers  —  adjectives,  adverbs, 
phrases,  but  not  clauses.     Here  are  examples: 

The  scout  approached. 

The  scout  and  his  prisoner  approached. 

He  and  his  friend  gave  the  watchword  and  were  allowed  to 

pass. 
Putting  on  his  old  gray  coat  and  lighting  the  lantern,  he 

started  for  the  barn. 

A  sentence  is  galled  complex  when  it  contains  a  principal 
clause  and  one  or  more  dependent  clauses.  The  dependent 
element  may  be  a  noun  clause  serving  as  subject  or  object; 
it  may  be  an  adjective  or  adverbial  clause.  Here  are  ex- 
amples. 

That  he  would  approve  was  doubtful. 
We  hoped  that  he  would  approve. 
They  were  content  with  what  they  had. 
If  it  should  rain,  we  may  not  go. 
He  is  the  one  who  tends  the  goal. 
When  he  gives  the  signal,  rush  forward. 

A  sentence  is  called  compound  if  it  is  made  up  of  two  or 
more  simple  sentences.  The  sentences  compounded  are 
joined  by  a  coordinate  conjunction.  Some  grammarians 
class  as  compound  all  sentences  containing  two  independent 
statements  closely  related  in  thought,  even  though  not 
joined  by  a  conjunction.  For  example,  they  would  call 
this  a  compound  sentence:  We  cannot  wait  longer;  it  is  time 
Jor  our  train.  It  is  better,  however,  to  treat  such  a  com- 
bination as  two  separate  sentences.  When  a  coordinntt- 
conjunction  joins  sentences  one  or  both  of  which  are  com- 


SENTENCE  ANALYSIS  427 

plex,  the  complete  sentence  is  called  complex-compound. 
Here  are  examples  of  compound  sentences: 

The  temperature  fell  to  twenty  degrees  below  zero  and  many 
poor  families  suffered.     (This  is  a  compound  sentence.) 

Those  who  were  tired  remained  behind;  but  we  boys,  un- 
willing to  miss  any  of  the  fun,  kept  on.  (This  is  a  complex- 
compound  sentence,  for  the  first  member  contains  a  modi- 
fying clause.) 

If  they  come,  all  is  well;  but  if  they  fail  us,  we  are  lost. 
(This  is  a  complex-compound  sentence.  Each  member 
contains  a  dependent  clause.) 

(See  Exercise  5.) 

Analyzing  a  sentence  means  taking  it  apart  for  the  pur- 
pose of  telling  how  it  is  constructed.  Here  are  plans  for 
analyzing  sentences  of  different  kinds: 

Simple  Sentence 

1.  Pick  out  the  complete  subject. 

2.  Pick  out  the  complete  predicate. 

3.  If  the  subject  is  not  simple,  take  it  apart,  first  picking 
out  the  simple  subject  and  then  naming  the  modifiers.  If 
a  modifier  is  a  phrase,  tell  how  the  phrase  is  made. 

4.  If  the  predicate  contains  more  than  the  verb,  take  it 
apart.  Name  the  object  first,  if  there  is  one,  then  take  up 
the  modifiers. 

(See  Exercise  6.) 

Compound  Sentence 

1.  Show  that  the  sentence  is  compound,  by  picking  out 
the  coordinate  clauses. 

2.  Name  the  conjunction  joining  the  clauses. 

3.  Take  apart  each  clause,  treating  it  as  if  it  were  a  simple 
sentence  standing  alone. 


428  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

Complex  Sentence 

1.  Show  that  the  sentence  is  complex. 

2.  Pick  out  the  principal  clause. 

3.  Name  the  dependent  clause  or  clauses  and  tell  what 
each  modifies. 

4.  Take  apart  each  clause. 

Occasionally  a  sentence  may  be  found  which  cannot  be 
analyzed  in  detail  satisfactorily.  This  is  due  to  the  fact 
that,  to  gain  time,  we  often  shorten  a  sentence,  leaving  out 
words  which  the  listener  or  reader  is  expected  to  supply. 
Moreover,  our  language  contains  many  phrase  idioms, 
groups  of  words  that  are  in  common  use  and  are  readily 
understood,  yet  defy  grammatical  analysis.  We  have 
already  seen  that  there  are  many  word-groups  used  as 
prepositions  and  conjunctions.  But  although  there  are 
these  difficulties,  analyzing  sentences  is  profitable  exercise. 
Through  taking  apart  many  sentences  and  noting  how  one 
element  is  related  to  another,  we  acquire  what  may  be  called 
the  sentence  sense,  which  enables  us  to  make  good  sentences 
and  appreciate  those  made  by  others.      (See  Exercises  7,  8.) 

Syntax  is  another  name  for  sentence  construction.  Scat- 
tered through  the  earlier  pages  are  a  number  of  rules  of 
syntax,  as  they  are  called.  For  convenient  reference  they 
are  here  brought  together. 

RULES   OF  SYNTAX 

I.  The  subject  of  a  verb  is  in  the  nominative  case. 

Since  pronouns  alone  have  different  forms  for  the 
nominative  and  the  objective,  the  rule  is  of  practical 
value  only  in  sentences  where  the  pronoun  is  used. 

II.  The  subject  of  an  infinitive  is  in  the  objective  case. 

Example:    They  wished  him  to  remain. 


SENTENCE  ANALYSIS  429 

in.  A  verb  agrees  with  its  subject  in  person  and  number. 

IV.  The  object,  direct  or  indirect,  of  a  verb  is  in  the  ob- 
jective case. 

V.  The  object  of  a  preposition  is  in  the  objective  case. 

VI.  A  predicate  noun  or  pronoun  agrees  in  case  with  the 
subject. 

This  important  rule  concerns  mainly  the  linking  verb 
to  bey  which  does  not  take  an  object.  Example: 
This  must  be  he. 

VII.  Words  in  apposition  are  in  the  same  case. 

VIII.  A  word  independent  by  address  is  in  the  nominative 
case. 

IX.  A  word  in  absolute  construction  is  in  the  nominative 
case. 

X.  A  pronoun  agrees  with  its  antecedent  in  person,  number, 
and  gender. 

Parsing  a  word  means  telling  all  about  it.  The  things 
that  may  be  told  about  the  different  parts  of  speech  are 
here  given  in  an  order  convenient  to  follow. 

Noun  Pronoun 

Kind  (common,  proper,  etc.)       Kind  (personal,  relative,  etc.) 
Number  Person  (if  a  personal  pronoun) 

Gender  Number 

Case  Gender  (if  a  personal  pronoun) 

How  used  Case 

How  used 

Adjective  Adverb 

Kind  (common,  proper,  pro-  Kind 

nominal,  etc.)  Degree   (if   the   adverb   can   be 

Degree  (if  the  adjective  can  compared) 

be  compared)  How  used 
How  used 


430  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

Preposition  Conjunction 

What  word  it  governs  Kind  (coordinate,  subordinate) 

What  word  the  phrase  it  in-  The  words,  phrases,  or  clauses 

troduces  modifies  that  it  connects 

Infinitive  Participle 

To  what  verb  it  belongs  To  what  verb  it  belongs 

Voice  Voice 

Tense  Tense 

How  used  How  used 

Verb 

Kind  (regular,  irregular) 

Principal  parts 

Class  (transitive,  intransitive) 

Voice 

Mood 

Tense 

Person  and  number 

There  is  nothing  to  tell  about  an  interjection  except  that 
it  is  an  interjection. 

Although  of  less  value  than  sentence  analysis,  parsing 
provides  profitable  exercise.  The  sentences  used  for  illus- 
tration throughout  this  section  are  appropriate  for  simple 
drill  of  this  kind.  Try  also  the  sentences  in  Exercises 
1-5.  In  parsing  verbs,  do  not  take  apart  the  verb  phrases. 
For  example,  treat  such  a  phrase  as  might  have  been  done  as 
if  it  were  but  one  word.  Where  two  or  three  words  form  a 
connective  —  a  preposition  or  a  conjunction,  do  not  try  to 
parse  the  words  separately,  for  that  might  be  too  difficult. 
Finally,  do  not  be  discouraged  if  occasionally  you  find  a 
word  which  you  cannot  parse  satisfactorily.  Analysis  and 
parsing,  when  carried  out  precisely,  sometimes  call  for  deep 
thinking. 


SENTENCE  ANALYSIS  4S1 

EXERCISES 


Pmnt  out  the  complete  subject  of  each  sentence.  If  the  sub- 
ject is  made  up  of  more  than  one  word,  analyze  it,  showing  how 
the  bare  subject  is  expanded. 

1.  Fire  burns.  2.  The  day's  work  must  be  done.  3.  Some 
of  the  trees  were  felled.  4.  The  path  which  leads  through  the 
grove  was  followed.  5.  This  proved  difficult.  6.  Where  are 
the  others?  7.  Alfred,  last  to  appear,  brought  the  lunch  basket. 
8.  Hand  me  the  hatchet,  John.  9.  Are  you  sure  that  they  will 
come?  10.  There  are  many  varieties  of  roses.  11.  Encouraged 
by  this  success,  we  pressed  on.  12.  He  who  arrives  first  at  the 
mill  should  first  have  his  grist.  13.  Ellen,  the  youngest  in  the 
party,  had  to  be  carried.  14.  ''Take  the  next  turn  to  the  left,'* 
he  said.  15.  Waiting  for  the  mail  to  be  distributed  was  by  no 
means  unpleasant.  16.  The  last  thing  to  do  was  to  put  out 
the  fire.     17.  Whatever  is  not  touched  by  the  imagination  dies. 


Pick  out  the  verb  which  forms  the  simple  predicate  in  each 
of  the  following  sentences.  Pick  out  the  complete  predicate. 
How  many  ways  of  expanding  the  simple  predicate  can  you 
discover? 

1.  Dogs  barked.  2.  He  replied  fearlessly.  3.  Wait  until  we 
call.  4.  Light  gains  make  a  heavy  purse.  5.  Are  you  ready 
now?  6.  All  is  not  gold  that  glitters.  7.  A  thing  of  beauty 
is  a  joy  forever.  8.  At  night  all  cats  are  gray.  9.  When  the 
fox  is  asleep,  nothing  falls  into  his  mouth.  10.  Tell  us  at  once 
what  we  should  do.  11.  He  asked  us  to  come  by  boat.  12.  We 
inquired  what  was  wanted.  13.  "What  are  you  doing?"  she 
cried.  14.  They  gave  her  a  set  of  books.  15.  We  saw  them 
leading  the  horse  to  pasture.  16.  I'm  going  home.  17.  Who 
do  you  think  he  is?  18.  Whom  can  we  get  to  do  it?  19.  There 
being  no  objection,  we  crossed  the  field.     20.  The  heroine  is  a 


432  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

young  princess  who  is  found  on  a  piece  of  wreck  at  sea,  with  a 
diamond  necklace  upon  her. 

3 

Pick  out  the  dependent  clauses.  Tell  what  kind  each  is 
and  explain  how  it  is  used. 

1.  That  he  had  been  delayed  seemed  evident.  2.  Those 
who  were  chosen  were  given  uniforms.  3.  The  field  where  we 
were  to  play  was  wet  from  recent  rains.  4.  He  thought  that  all 
was  lost.  5.  That  is  what  he  said.  6.  There  were  several 
reasons  why  we  could  not  go.  7.  We  made  all  plans  before  we 
started.  8.  It  was  thought  that  all  had  been  saved.  9.  If  it 
is  pleasant,  let  us  start  early.  10.  We  were  cheered  by  what 
they  told  us.  11.  That  they  might  know  when  to  expect  us, 
we  sent  a  telegram.  12.  Do  you  know  what  the  answer  is? 
13.  **Why  do  you  hesitate?"  he  asked.  14.  While  we  were 
sitting  in  the  cabin,  talking,  we  heard  the  faint  whir  of  aircraft. 

4 

Pick  out  the  phrases.     Name  each  and  tell  how  it  is  used. 

1.  The  proof  of  the  pudding  is  in  the  eating.  2.  Bells  pealed 
in  frantic  towers.  3.  Unto  the  pure  all  things  are  pure.  4.  By 
asking  many  questions,  he  managed  to  find  what  he  wished. 
5.  The  branches,  swayed  by  the  breeze,  made  ever  changing 
shadows.  6.  This  having  been  attended  to,  we  went  to  bed. 
7.  The  snow,  sweeping  across  the  fields,  piled  high  against  the 
shack.  8.  To  gain  his  confidence  took  time.  9.  It  was  not 
easy  to  accomplish  this.  10.  It  is  a  pleasure  to  see  you  again. 
11.  The  last  to  leave  the  burning  building  was  Raffles,  carrying 
a  very  much  frightened  kitten  in  his  arms.  12.  During  three 
years  he  kept  everything  about  the  house  in  repair,  and  raised 
the  best  fruits  and  melons  in  the  village.  13.  Mr.  Moore  says, 
"When  one  of  Mr.  Clarke  Russell's  sailors,  after  tossing  about 
for  days  in  an  open  boat,  climbs  aboard  a  deserted  ship,  breaks 
into  the  storeroom,  eats  his  fill,  and  takes  an  inventory  of  all 
the  provisions  at  hand,  our  mouths  water  in  sympathy." 


SENTENCE  ANALYSIS  433 

5 

Tell  what  kind  of  sentence  each  of  the  following  is  —  simple^ 
compound,  or  complex. 

1.  On  his  way  to  the  stream  the  fisherman  plans  what  flies 
he  will  use,  but  a  few  casts  may  persuade  him  to  choose  anew. 

2.  A  sentinel,  barring  the  way,  turned  him  back.  3.  This  in- 
strument he  played  most  skillfully.  4.  A  lie  is  contemptible 
chiefly  because  it  is  cowardly.  5.  He  wore  a  general's  uniform 
and  carried  an  overcoat  across  his  arm.  6.  What  cannot  be 
cured  must  be  endured.  7.  In  a  few  hours  the  fire,  having 
spread  fiercely  among  the  wooden  buildings,  communicated 
itself  from  one  to  another  with  frightful  rapidity.  8.  If  a  man 
could  make  a  single  rose,  we  should  give  him  an  empire;  yet 
flowers  no  less  beautiful  are  scattered  in  profusion  over  the 
world.  9.  A  few  thousand  bright  stars  are  visible,  while 
countless  others  are  unseen  or  show  only  in  the  congregated 
gleam  of  the  Milky  Way.  10.  Here  and  there  in  the  Deep  Sea 
there  are  tremendous  depths,  technically  called  "deeps,"  of 
over  3000  fathoms;  and  eight  soundings  of  over  5000  fathoms 
have  been  taken. 

6 

Analyze  the  following  simple  sentences,  pointing  out  (1)  the 
complete  subject,  (2)  the  complete  predicate,  (3)  the  bare  sub- 
jects,  (4)  the  modifiers  of  the  bare  subject,  (5)  the  bare  predicate, 
(6)  the  object  of  the  verb,  if  there  is  an  object,  (7)  the  modifiers 
of  the  verb. 

1.  Worry  makes  cowards.     2.  Now  clear  the  deck  for  action! 

3.  Death  lays  his  icy  hands  on  kings.  4.  Pippo  picked  up 
the  box,  opened  it,  and  found  a  pretty  purse  wrapped  in 
cotton.  5.  On  either  side  of  the  road  was  a  row  of  tall  cryp- 
tomerias.  6.  No  wise  athlete  stands  still  after  exercise  without 
putting  something  around  him.  7.  It  was  a  terrible  night.  8.  He 
stood  gazing  out  of  the  window.  9.  He  gave  us  his  name  and 
address,  written  on  a  slip  of  paper.  10.  There  drove  into  the 
courtyard  of  his  little  house  a  carriage  with  seats  for  two,  and 
four  horses  harnessed  abreast. 


434  JUNIOR  ENGLISH  BOOK 

7 

Analyze  the  following  sentences.  If  a  sentence  is  compound, 
point  out  first  the  coordinate  members  and  tell  hmo  they  are 
joined;  then  treat  each  member  as  if  it  were  an  independent 
sentence.  If  a  sentence  is  complex,  point  out  first  the  prin- 
cipal member  and  then  the  subordinate.  Analyze  the  prin- 
cipal member,  then  the  subordinate. 

1.  The  fateful  morning  dawned  at  last;  but  an  impenetrable 
fog  which  spread  over  the  plain  delayed  the  attack.  2.  The 
engines  were  stopped,  and  all  hands  were  called  to  the  boats, 
which  were  promptly  lowered.  3.  "There  must  be  some  mis- 
understanding," said  the  messenger.  4.  While  these  thoughts 
were  passing  through  his  mind,  he  was  feeling  half-mechanically 
for  his  purse.  5.  He  was  singularly  skillful  in  leaping  nimbly 
from  one  horse  to  another  without  putting  foot  to  the  ground. 
6.  The  boat  labored  heavily  and  shipped  water,  and  spray 
burst  continually  over  the  men  as  they  bailed.  7.  Many  gen- 
erations have  come  and  gone  since  the  Mayflower  lay  rocking 
in  yonder  bay.  8.  I  must  ask  Tom  about  the  place;  he  will 
tell  us  all  that  we  wish  to  know.  9.  A  wise  man  thinks  before 
he  speaks,  but  a  fool  speaks  and  then  thinks  of  what  he  has 
been  saying.  10.  In  vain  do  you  lead  the  ox  to  water  if  he  will 
not  drink.  11.  Mark  Twain  tells  of  a  California  jay  that  tried 
to  fill  a  miner's  cabin  with  acorns  through  a  knot-hole  in  the 
roof.  12.  I  have  seen  a  shadow  on  a  windy  night  move  more 
noisily  than  Nuth,  for  Nuth  is  a  burglar  by  trade.  13.  Educa- 
tion begins  the  gentleman,  but  reading,  good  company,  and 
reflection  must  finish  him. 


SEQUENCE  GUIDE  TO  DRILL  EXERCISES 


SEQUENCE  GUIDE  TO  DRILL  EXERCISES 
PART  ONE 

Pronunciation 


PAGE 

preliminary  test 12 

final  g  and  t 100 

"clipped"  syllables 100 

ath-el-et-ics,  saicr,  etc 102 

ketch  for  catch,  etc 103 

fellers  tor  fellows,  etc 133 

correct  sound  of  a 133 

th,  pth,  ngth,  etc 171 


PAGB 

correct  sound  of  i  and  a 171 

correct  pronunciation  of  route, 
deaf,    and    other    common 

words 208 

correct  placing  of  accent 208 

French  terms 209 

final  tests 235 


SPELIiING 


preliminary  test 12 

words  commonly  confused. ..  .  62 

words  containing  ei  and  ie 102 

silent  e  before  a  suflfix 103- 

consonant  before  a  suffix 134 

words  ending  mful,  al,  and  ly .  135 

words  commonly  confused. ..  .  172 

homonyms  commonly  confused  172 

commercial  terms 210 

correspondence  terms 212' 

words  conmionly  confused 236 


words  simple  when  analyzed .  .     259 

troublesome  vowel  words 261 

troublesome  consonant  words.     261 

troublesome  suffixes 262 

troublesome  prefixes 286 

common  but  difficult  words .  .  .     319 
See  also  p.  369  for  troublesome 
numerals,  and  pp.  333,  352, 
365,    405    for    troublesome 
grammatical  terms. 


Word  Study 


alphabetical  arrangement.  ...  10 

individual  vocabularies 36 

alphabetical  arrangement.  ...  36 

topic  vocabularies 37 

alphabetical  arrangement.  ...  37 

definition 37 

finding  new  words 38 

finding  words  of  several  mean- 
ings    38 

word  games 62 


imitative  words 97 


words  from  other  countries ...  98 

meanings  of  "given"  names.  .  98 
words      suggesting      pictures, 

etc 98 

words  with  hidden  meanings .  .  99 

Latin  prefixes 236 

graphic  words 296 

precise  words 322 

synonyms 323 


Punctuation 


where  not  to  punctuate 

period  at  close  of  sentence. . . . 

period  after  abbreviation 

comma  between  terms  of  a  series 

quotation  marks 

commas  enclosing  parentheti- 
cal matter 

comma  after  dependent  clause 

colon 

ways  of  punctuating  enumera- 
tions   


40      interrogation  point 140 

40      exclamation  point 140 

42  apostrophe 140 

43  commas  setting  off  restrictive 

65  clause 173 

comma  before  a  conjunction .  .  175 

106  semicolon 212 

107  parenthesis  marks 238 

127       dash 239 

final  tests 240 

138 
437 


\ 


438     SEQUENCE  GUIDE  TO  DRILL  EXERCISES 
Sentence  Revision 

PAGE  PAGE 

interchanging  equivalent  ele-  interchanging  equivalent  ele- 
ments   263          ments ... 294 

avoiding     unpleasant     word-  making    participial     reference 

repetition 264  definite 320 

removing  unnecessary  words .  .  266  bringing  about  uniformity  in 

combining  short  sentences ....  267  person,  etc 321 

supplying  missing  words 267  unifying  terms  in  parallel  con- 
avoiding  and 292          stniction 322 

combining  short  sentences. . . ,  293  See  also  exercises  in  Part  Two. 

PART  TWO 

The  Eight  Parts  of  Speech 

picking  out  parts  of  speech .  .  .     332       explaining  grammatical  terms    333 
inventing  sentences  containing  spelling  grammatical  terms. . .     333 

specified  parts  of  speech 333 

The  Sentence 

picking  out  and  analyzing  sub-  classifying  sentences  as  simple, 

jects 338  etc. 339 

picking    out    and    analyzing  explaining  grammatical  terms    340 

predicates 338 

Nouns 

picking  out  nouns 350  telling  how  pven  nouns  are 

forming  plurals  of  nouns 350  used 351 

giving    possessive     forms    of  explaining  grammatical  terms, 

nouns 351  etc 352 

giving  gender  nouns 351  spelling  granmiatical  terms .. .     352 

Pronouns 

declining  personal  pronouns . . .  360  ative  clauses  are  improperly 

explaining  how  pronouns  are  placed 363 

used 360      choosing    between    who    and 

determining  correct  usage ....  360  whom 364 

making  pronominal   reference                picking  out  relatives  and  show- 
definite  361  ing  how  they  are  used 364 

correcting  errors  in  use  of  pro-                determining  which  of  two  pro- 
nouns    362  nouns  to  use 364 

combining  short  sentences. .  .  .  362      giving  talk  on  pronouns 365 

revising  sentences  in  which  rel-  spelling  grammatical  terms,  etc.    365 

Adjectives 

giving  degrees  of  comparison  369  correcting  faulty  use  of  adjec- 

epelling  numerals 369  tives 370 

picking  out  adjectives  and  ex-  giving  talk  on  adjectives 370 

plaining  how  they  are  used  369 


SEQUENCE    GUIDE   TO   DRILL   EXERCISES     43^ 


Adverbs 


PAGE 

picking  out  adverbs  and  show- 
ing how  each  is  used 374 

improving  position  of  adverbs     375 
choosing  between  correct  and 
incorrect  forms 376 


PAGE 

forming  adverbs  from  adjec- 
tives and  nouns 376 

giving  talk  on  adverbs 376- 


picking  out  verbs  and  finding 

their  subjects 

giving     principal      parts      of 

troublesome  verbs 

conjugating  verbs 

giving  specified  verb-forms ,  . . 

correcting  tense  errors 

distinguishing   between   verbs 

often  confused 

determining    correct    use    of 

shall  and  loUl 

determining    correct     use    of 

should  and  would 

determining  correct  use  of  may 

and  can 


Verbs 

distinguishing  between  indica- 

395  tive    was    and    subjunctive 
were 402; 

396  detecting  errors  in  agreement 

396  between  subject  and  verb.  .     403^ 

397  picking  out  transitive  and  in- 

398  transitive  verbs 404 

making     participial    reference 

398  definite 404 

explaining  verb  terms 405 

400  giving  brief  talks  on  verbs  and 

their  uses 405 

401  spelling  verb  terms 405 

402 


Prepositions  and  Conjunctions 


picking  out  and  naming  prepo- 
sitional phrases 412 

relocating  prepositional  phrases    413 

removing  unnecessary  preposi- 
tions      414 

picking  out  and  naming  con- 
junctions       414 

making  coordinate  elements 
parallel 415 


getting  rid  of  superfluous  and    416 

avoiding  as  and  so  as 417 

correcting   common   errors  in 

the  uses  of  connectives 417 

giving  a  talk  on  common 
errors  in  the  use  of  connec- 
tives       419 

spelling  grammatical  terms, 
etc 419 


Sentence  Analysis 


picking  out  and  analyzing  sub- 
jects       431 

picking  out  and  analyzing 
predicates 431 

picking  out  dependent  clauses 
and  explaining  how  they  are 
used 432 


432 


picking  out  phrases  and  ex- 
plaining how  they  are  used .  . 

classifying  sentences  as  simple, 
etc 433 

analyzing  sentences ,.,,,,,,.     433 


INDEX 


Adjectives,  366 
Adverbs,  371 
advertisements,  201,  251 
alphabetical  arrangement,  10,  36 
and,  avoiding,  292,  416 
argument,  219,  247 
Art  of  Explaining,  The,  131 
AH  of  Picturing,  The,  168 
as  and  so  as,  417 
As  Father  Tells  It,  47 
At  the  Dentist's,  51 
autobiography,  281 

Before  and  After,  316 
Belling  the  Cat,  8 
Bliss,  313 
book  review,  32 
Bootblacks,  The  Tvx),  9 
Building  of  Roads,  The,  306 
Business  English,  181 

can  and  may,  393 

capitals,  use  of,  65,  342 

clause,  423 

climax,  314 

compositions  by  pupils:  As  Father 
Tells  It,  47;  Mr.  Woodchuck,  50; 
At  the  Dentist's,  51;  Contest  vrith  a 
Salmon  Trout,  56;  Safe,  58;  How 
to  Make  a  Squirrel  Tray,  124; 
A  Nutmeg  Grater,  129;  How  a  Cat 
Crosses  a  Muddy  Road,  158;  Perils 
of  the  Chase,  159;  Ten  Minutes  in 
the  Life  of  a  Cat,  160;  Portrait  of  a 
Western  Girl,  164;  a  secretary's 
report,  193;  Walker  Beach,  198; 
The  Building  of  Roads,  306;  The 
Fire,  307;  Crawling  Under,  312; 
Bliss,  313;  Tioo  Pictures,  316; 
Before  and  After,  316 

conjunctions,  409 

Contest  vrith  a  Salmon  Trout,  56 

contrast,  315 

Convincing  Others,  247 

Crawling  Under,  312 


debate,  253 
definition,  37,  38 
description,  145 
dialogue,  272 
diary,  279 

dictation,  5,  103,  206 
dictionary,  35 

Eastern  Tale,  An,  26 

Eight  Parts  of  Speech,  The,  327 

Explaining,  113 

exposition,  112 

Fire,  The,  307 
Franklin's  Birthplace,  150 

gerund,  383 

Giant  and  the  Dwarf ,  19 

homonyms,  172 

Hou^e  Dog  and  the  Wolf,  30 

How  a  Cat  Crosses  a  Muddy  Road, 

158 
How  Base  Balls  are  Made,  127 
How  to  Build  a  Camp  Fire,  118 
How  to  Make  a  Squirrel  Trap,  124 

imagination,  training  the,  271 
Incident  of  the  French  Camp,  277 
infinitive,  382 

Japanese  Legend,  A,  18 

Letters,  71 
letters,  business,  181 

Making  up  One's  Mind,  219 
Mr.  Woodchuck,  50 
Munchausen  Adventure,  ^,17 
My  Room,  154 

narration,  17,  47 

Narration,  Putting  Life  into,  60 

Nouns,  341 

Nutmeg  Grater,  A,  129 


441. 


442 


INDEX 


Old  Stories  to  Tell,  17 

Paragraph,  The,  305 

parallel  construction,  322,  415 

parsing,  429 

participle,  383;  participial  reference, 

320,  394 
Partners,  23 
parts  of  speech,  327 
Perils  of  the  Chase,  159 
phrase,  prepositional,  406,  423 
Picturing,  145 
Portrait  of  a  Western  Girl,  164 
prefixes,  Latin,  286 
Prepositions  and  Conjunctions, 

406 
Pronouns,  353 
punctuation,  see  Sequence  Guide  to 

Drill  Exercises 
Putting  Life  into  Narration,  60 

repetition,  unpleasant,  264 
reports,  192 

Sad  Little  Lass,  A,  276 
Safe,  58 

salesmanship,  202 
Saved  by  a  Beetle,  9 
Sentence,  The,  334 
Sentence  Analysis,  420 
sentence     revision,     see     Sequence 
Guide  to  Drill  Exercises 


sentences,    kinds,    327,    336,    426; 

topical,  308 
shall  and  will,  391 
should  and  woidd,  393 
soliloquy,  279 
spelling,  5ee  Sequence  Guide  to  Drill 

Exercises 
Story  of  a  Wooden  Horse,  25 
SUrry  Telling,  17 
Sword  of  Damocles,  24 
synonyms,  323 
syntax,  rules  of,  428 

telephone  English,  204 

Ten  Minutes  in  the  Life  of  a  Cat, 

160 
topical  sentence,  308 
Training  the  Imagination,  271 
True  Narratives,  47 
Two  Pictures,  316 


Verbs,  376; 
386 


errors  in  the  use  of. 


Walker  Beach,  198 
toas  and  were,  390 
Winning  of  Rosamond,  The,  28 
Wise  Dervish,  The,  28 
word  derivation,  97 
word  games,  62 

word  study,  see  Sequence  Guide  to 
Drill  Exercises 


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